Dog bite explained

A dog bite is a bite upon a person or other animal by a dog. More than one successive bite is often called a dog attack, although dog attacks can include knock-downs and scratches. Though some dog bites do not result in injury, they can result in infection, disfigurement, temporary or permanent disability, or death. Another type of dog bite is the "soft bite" displayed by well-trained dogs, by puppies, and in non-aggressive play.^[1] Dog bites can occur during dog fighting, as a response to mistreatment, by trained dogs working as guard, police or military animals, or during a random encounter.^{[2] [3]}

There is debate on whether or not certain breeds of dogs are inherently more prone to commit attacks causing serious injury (i.e., so driven by instinct and breeding that, under certain circumstances, they are exceedingly likely to attempt or commit dangerous attacks).^[4] It is recognized that the risk of dog bites can be increased by human actions such as abuse or bite training, or through inaction such as neglect, carelessness in confinement or lack of control.

Significant dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year.^[5] It is estimated that 2% of the U.S. population, 4.5–4.7 million people, are bitten by dogs each year.^[6] Most bites occur in children, with nearly half of all children in the U.S. being bitten by a dog at least once by the age of 12.^[7] In the 1980s and 1990s, the U.S. averaged 17 deaths per year.^[8] Between 2011 and 2021 approximately 468 people were killed by dog bites in the United States, averaging 43 deaths per year.^[9] Between 2018 and 2021, deaths were more than doubled for both males (age 15 to 37) and females (age 20 to 44).^[10] Animal bites, most of which are from dogs, are the reason for 1% of visits to emergency departments in the United States.^[11]

Cause

Breeds

All dog breeds can inflict a bite; breed is not an accurate predictor of whether or not a dog will bite. In the US pit bull-type and Rottweilers most frequently are identified breeds in cases of severe bites.^{[11] [12]} In a study comparing media accounts of 256 dog bite related deaths 2000–2009, when a strict definition was used ("documented pedigree, parentage information, or DNA test results or on the basis of concordance among media breed descriptor, animal control breed descriptor, and the veterinarian-assigned breed from a photograph") the resulting 45 dogs comprised 20 recognized breeds and 2 known crosses. The study also published information comparing when multiple media reports (or media reports compared with animal control reports) differed in reporting the breeds. When using a strict definition ("Rottweiler" is not equal to "Rottweiler-mix") 30%-40% of the reports varied. When using a less strict definition ("Rottweiler" and "Rottweiler-mix" are equal enough) only 12%-15% of the reports varied.^[13]

A 2000 study by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) of human fatalities from dog bites during the twenty years 1979–1998, reported that pit bull-type dogs and Rottweilers were involved in more than half of the deaths.^[8] Published in the Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, the AVMA's opinion was that the study could not be used to infer any breed-specific risk for dog bite fatalities without also noting the numbers of each breed residing in the US.^[14]

Dog behavior

In isolation, predatory behaviors are rarely the cause of an attack on a human.^[15] Predatory aggression is more commonly involved as a contributing factor for example in attacks by multiple dogs; a "pack kill instinct" may arise if multiple dogs are involved in an attack.^{[16] [17]}

Prevention

Dog bite prevention is efforts to prevent people being attacked and bitten by dogs. Legislative bodies have addressed concerns about dog bites that include licensing laws, statutes outlawing organized dogfights, and leash laws. Breed-Specific Legislation (BSL) has been enacted in some areas limiting the ownership and activities of dogs perceived to be more likely to bite and attack.^{[18] [19] [20] [21]} Dog breeds targeted by breed-specific regulations include Rottweilers, American Staffordshire Bull Terriers ("Pit Bulls"), Chow Chows, German Shepherd Dogs, and Doberman Pinschers. Other measures in preventing dog bites are Beware of the dog signage and locked dog enclosures.^[2]

Some people, like the very young or the very old, are more susceptible to being bitten and therefore may need additional methods of prevention.^[22]

Dogs can be extremely territorial and protective. Dogs can attack anyone who poses a threat to their companions, whether humans, other dogs, or even cats. Dogs can rival bears and big cats in ferocity when confronting burglars, even if they are ordinarily docile.

In addition to causing pain, injury, or nerve damage, almost one out of five bites becomes infected. Those who work and live around dogs should be aware of the risk and take precautions. Rabies is a particular risk associated with dog bites. In the United States between 16,000 and 39,000 people come in contact with potentially rabid dogs and other animals and receive rabies pre- and post-exposure prophylaxis against the rabies virus each year.^[23] Because anyone who is bitten by an unvaccinated dog is at risk of getting rabies, local animal control agencies or police are sometimes able to capture the animal and determine whether or not it is infected with rabies.^[24]

Identifying the risk of being bitten by a dog can prevent an attack and subsequent injury or death. Infants and children are more likely to be bitten. Small children can be attacked if they approach or play with a dog when they are not supervised. Among children, the rate of dog-bite–related injuries is highest for those five to nine years old. Children are more likely than adults to need medical attention for dog bites. Men are more likely than women to be bitten by a dog. Over half of dog-bite injuries occur in the home. Having a dog in the household is associated with a higher likelihood of being bitten than not having a dog. As the number of dogs in the home increases, so does the likelihood of being bitten. Adults with two or more dogs in the household are five times more likely to be bitten than those living without dogs at home.^{[24] [22]}

The behavior of a dog may not always indicate its friendliness or unlikelihood of biting. This is because when a dog wags its tail, most people interpret this as the dog expressing happiness and friendliness. Though indeed tail wagging can express these positive emotions, tail wagging is also an indication of fear, insecurity, anxiety, challenging of dominance, establishing social relationships or a warning that the dog may bite.^[25]

Health effects

Rabies results in the death of approximately 55,000 people per year, with most of the causes due to dog bites.^[5] Capnocytophaga canimorsus, MRSA, tetanus, and Pasteurella can be transmitted from a dog to someone bitten by the dog.^[26] Bergeyella zoohelcum is an emerging infection transmitted through dog bites.^[27] Infection with B. zoohelcum from dog bites can lead to bacteremia.^[28]

Treatment

When a person receives a dog bite where the skin is broken, the risk of a serious infection can be reduced by cleaning the wound and getting appropriate health care treatment.^[29] It is important to find out if the dog's rabies vaccinations are current. A Cochrane review found that there is not much evidence for or against current practices of keeping dog bite wounds left open to heal for a short time before closure (delayed closure) or not stitched at all (no closure) over immediate closure by stitching.^[30]

Epidemiology

Significant dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year.^[5] It is estimated that 1.5–2 percent of the US population, from 4.5 to 4.7 million people, are bitten by dogs yearly.^{[31] [6]} Most bites occur in children.^[11] Over half of dog bite injuries occur at home with familiar dogs and having a dog in the household is linked to a higher likelihood of being bitten than not having a dog. As the number of dogs in the home increases, so does the likelihood of being bitten.^[32] Dog bites may transmit zoonotic infections, which may also result in illness or death. Dogs are the primary source of rabies transmission to humans.^[33] Information on the extent of traumatic injuries from dog attacks is incomplete, and the number of bites is thought to be underreported.^{[34] [35]} In a survey of dog bites in Pennsylvania, the rate of dog bites was 36 times higher than what had been reported to authorities.^[36] According to national estimates, almost 1,000 persons per day are seen in US emergency departments for dog bites.^[37] It has been estimated that 1 out of 2 people will sustain a dog-related injury during his lifetime.^[38] Most victims are involved in normal, apparently nonprovoking activities before dog attacks.^{[39] [40] [41]}

Animal bites, most of which are from dogs, are the reason for 1% of visits to an emergency department in the United States.^[11] Some people, like the very young or the very old are more susceptible to being bitten by a dog.^[22] From 1979 through 1994 there were approximately 279 deaths related to dog attacks in the United States.^[42]

More serious injuries from dogs are often described in the media.^{[43] [2]} In 2010, more people were killed by dogs (34) than were hit by lightning (29).^{[44] [45]} Emergency department visits and treatment by those bitten number in the thousands.^[46]

Australia

On average 2,061 people received treatment for dog bite injuries each year between 2001 and 2013.^[47]

Austria

About 5,900 Austrians are treated annually after being bitten by dogs. One fifth of those injured are children.^[48]

United States

In the United States, approximately 4.5 million people are bitten by dogs each year. Approximately twenty percent of dog bites become infected.

In a survey of dog bites in Pennsylvania, the rate of dog bites was 36 times higher than what had been reported to authorities. According to national estimates, almost 1,000 persons per day are seen in emergency departments for dog bites. It has been estimated that 1 out of 2 people will have a dog-related injury during their lifetime.^[49]

Legal issues

Dog owners may be legally liable for the bites and injuries that their dog causes to people or other dogs. In addition, states and local governments have passed laws and ordinances that allow the government to take action against dogs that are considered dangerous.^{[50] [51] [52] [53]} In some cases, a dog owner may be criminally prosecuted for a dog attack on another person.^{[54] [55]} Homeowner's insurance policies typically provide some liability coverage for dog bites that occur on the insured properties.

United States

All US states recognize that a dog owner may be potentially liable for dog bites. Depending upon the state, the rules for when a dog owner may be liable for a bite will vary. Models of liability for dog bites fall into three broad categories:

• Common law. At common law, a dog owner can be held liable for the injury caused by a dog that the owner knows, or has reason to know, may be dangerous. Many common law jurisdictions have historically recognized a "one bite" rule, meaning that absent information that suggests that a dog may be unusually dangerous to others, a dog owner cannot be held liable for the first bite injury caused by their dog.
• Strict liability. States that impose strict liability make the owner of a dog liable for injuries caused by a dog, without further consideration of the facts. Strict liability laws may require that the person seeking damages for a dog bite prove that they were acting peacefully and lawfully at the time of the bite. The law may also recognize a limited range of defenses to liability, such as the dog owner successfully proving that the injured person was trespassing at the time of the injury or had engaged in conduct that provoked the attack.
• Mixed law. Many states take a mixed approach, passing statutes that are based upon the common law but that add additional elements that must be proven for a dog bite injury to succeed in an injury claim, or provide defenses not available at common law.

The United States is not receptive to the idea that the dog itself can be criminally liable for a bite.^[56] A California court explained that, although the tendency to anthropomorphize animals is understandable, especially with beloved pets like dogs, the law does not recognize dogs as having the mental state that can incur criminal liability. That is, although dogs and other animals may have the capacity to commit vicious and violent acts, they do not possess the legal ability to commit crimes.^[57]

States that have enacted legislation that assigns liability include Michigan,^[58] Rhode Island,^[59] Florida,^[60] California,^{[61] [62]} and Texas.^[53]

Connecticut's dog bite statute provides for strict liability in most situations, subject to exceptions if the person bitten by the dog was trespassing or involved in a tort, or was teasing, abusing, or tormenting the dog.^{[63] [64]}

See also

• • List of fatal dog attacks Animal attack
• Beware of the dog
• Breed-specific legislation
• Cat bite
• Coyote attack
• Dingo attack
• Dog aggression
• Dog behavior
• Dogs in the United States
• Man bites dog
• Rabies
• Wolf attacks on humans

Further reading

• 2022 . Daigle . L . Delesalle . L . Ravel . A . Ford . B . Aenishaenslin . C . Occurrence and Risk Factors of Dog Bites in Northern Indigenous Communities: A Scoping Review . Frontiers in Veterinary Science . 35518635. 9064469 . Daigle . L. . Delesalle . L. . Ravel . A. . Ford . B. . Aenishaenslin . C. . 9 . 10.3389/fvets.2022.777640 . free .
• Alizadeh . Kaveh . Shayesteh . Ali . Li Xu . Min . 2017 . An Algorithmic Approach to Operative Management of Complex Pediatric Dog Bites: 3-Year Review of a Level I Regional Referral Pediatric Trauma Hospital . Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery – Global Open . 5 . 10 . e1431 . 10.1097/GOX.0000000000001431. 29184724 . 5682160 .

External links

• • NCIPC bibliography of articles on dog bites (2011)
• CDC Dog Bite Factsheet (2014)

Notes and References

1. Web site: Reinforce Your Dog's Bite Inhibition. www.whole-dog-journal.com. 12 May 2010. 5 May 2017. 26 June 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180626001622/https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/issues/13_6/features/Bite-Inhibition_16232-1.html. live.
2. Web site: Weiss. Linda S.. Breed-Specific Legislation in the United States. Animal Legal & Historical Center. Michigan State University. 1 October 2017. 2001. 24 January 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190124011249/https://www.animallaw.info/article/breed-specific-legislation-united-states. live.
3. Tulloch . John S. P. . Owczarczak-Garstecka . Sara C. . Fleming . Kate M. . Vivancos . Roberto . Westgarth . Carri . 2021-01-19 . English hospital episode data analysis (1998–2018) reveal that the rise in dog bite hospital admissions is driven by adult cases . Scientific Reports . 11 . 1 . 1767 . 10.1038/s41598-021-81527-7 . 2045-2322 . 7815787 . 33469116. 2021NatSR..11.1767T .
4. Web site: 2017-11-01 . The dangerous dog debate American Veterinary Medical Association . 2024-03-07 . American Veterinary Medical Association . en.
5. Web site: Animal bites Fact sheet N°373. World Health Organization. 5 May 2014. February 2013. 4 May 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150504100257/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/. live.
6. Web site: Dog Bite Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 22 April 2013. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130501205632/http://www.cdc.gov/HomeandRecreationalSafety/Dog-Bites/biteprevention.html. 1 May 2013.
7. Web site: Anderson . Brian C. . Brian C. Anderson . Spring 1999 . Scared of Pit Bulls? You'd Better Be! . City-Journal . Manhattan Institute for Policy Research . Incredibly, nearly half of all American kids have been bitten by the age of 12. . New York City, New York. https://web.archive.org/web/20230511171825/https://www.city-journal.org/article/scared-of-pit-bulls-youd-better-be . 2023-05-11 .
8. Sacks. Jeffrey J. Sinclair. Leslie. Gilchrist. Julie. Golab. Gail C. Lockwood. Randall. 2000. Breeds of dogs involved in fatal human attacks in the United States between 1979 and 1998. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association. 217. 6. 836–840. 10.2460/javma.2000.217.836. 10997153. 10817039. https://web.archive.org/web/20150411211206/http://www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/images/dogbreeds-a.pdf. 11 April 2015.
9. Web site: Dog Bite Prevention . Center for Disease Control . 8 September 2023 . 14 February 2024.
10. CDCMMWR . 2023 . QuickStats: Number of Deaths Resulting from Being Bitten or Struck by a Dog, by Sex — National Vital Statistics System, United States, 2011–2021 . MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . en-us . 72 . 36 . 999 . 10.15585/mmwr.mm7236a6 . 37676834 . 0149-2195. 10495186 .
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13. 10.2460/javma.243.12.1726 . 24299544 . Co-occurrence of potentially preventable factors in 256 dog bite–related fatalities in the United States (2000–2009) . Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association . 243 . 12 . 1726–1736 . 2013 . Patronek . Gary J . Sacks . Jeffrey J . Delise . Karen M . Cleary . Donald V . Marder . Amy R . 6466457 . 30 September 2021 . 29 October 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211029203753/http://www.marylanddogfederation.com/uploads/1/6/6/0/16605940/javma_dbrf_factors_00-09_dec_2013.pdf . dead .
14. Web site: Cover letter re article 'Breeds of dogs involved in fatal human attacks in the United States between 1979 and 1998'. American Veterinary Medical Association. 6 July 2021.
15. Book: Lindsay, Steven R. . 10.1002/9780470376997.ch8 . Social Competition and Aggression . Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training, Volume Two . 229–72 . 2001 . 9780470376997 .
16. 10.1016/0020-1383(95)90550-H . 7868208 . Severe dog-bite injuries, introducing the concept of pack attack: A literature review and seven case reports . Injury . 26 . 1 . 37–41 . 1995 . Kneafsey . B . Condon . K.C .
17. 10.1097/00000433-199909000-00005 . 10507791 . Dog Pack Attack: Hunting Humans . The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology . 20 . 3 . 243–246 . 1999 . Avis . Simon P .
18. Web site: FL - Dogs - Florida Dog /Dangerous Dog Laws Animal Legal & Historical Center . www.animallaw.info . 27 November 2019 . 29 November 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191129040602/https://www.animallaw.info/statute/fl-dogs-florida-dog-dangerous-dog-laws#s11 . live .
19. Web site: MI - Dangerous - Chapter 287. Animal Industry. Dangerous Animals. | Animal Legal & Historical Center. www.animallaw.info. 5 May 2017. 11 June 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170611165250/https://www.animallaw.info/statute/mi-dangerous-chapter-287-animal-industry-dangerous-animals. live.
20. Web site: OH - Dog - Chapter 955. Dogs (Consolidated dog laws) | Animal Legal & Historical Center. www.animallaw.info. 5 May 2017. 3 August 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170803214951/https://www.animallaw.info/statute/oh-dog-chapter-955-dogs-consolidated-dog-laws#s11. live.
21. Web site: MN - Dangerous - Minnesota Dangerous Dog Definitions, Dog Bites, & Rabies Treatments | Animal Legal & Historical Center. www.animallaw.info. 5 May 2017. 11 June 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170611165317/https://www.animallaw.info/statute/mn-dangerous-minnesota-dangerous-dog-definitions-dog-bites-rabies-treatments. live.
22. Web site: Dog Bite Prevention . American Veterinary Medical Association . 2017 . 25 April 2017 . 26 April 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170426060147/https://www.avma.org/public/Pages/Dog-Bite-Prevention.aspx . live .
23. Web site: Human Rabies Prevention, United States, Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices . . 25 April 2017 . 2008 . 2 . 25 April 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170425205036/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr57e507.pdf . live .
24. Web site: Preventing Dog Bites . 18 May 2015 . . 25 April 2017 . 17 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190417073156/https://www.cdc.gov/features/dog-bite-prevention/index.html . dead .
25. Web site: What a Wagging Dog Tail Really Means: New Scientific Data Specific tail wags provide information about the emotional state of dogs . Stanley . Coren . 5 December 2011 . 30 April 2017 . Psychology Today .
26. 18496505 . Human rabies prevention--United States, 2008: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices . 2008 . Manning . S. E . . 57 . RR-3 . 1–28 . Rupprecht . C. E . Fishbein . D . Hanlon . C. A . Lumlertdacha . B . Guerra . M . Meltzer . M. I . Dhankhar . P . Vaidya . S. A . Jenkins . S. R . Sun . B . Hull . H. F . Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices Centers for Disease Control Prevention . 25 August 2018 . 4 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200204175641/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5703a1.htm . live .
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28. 10.1016/s0929-6646(07)60008-4 . 17660147 . Cellulitis and Bacteremia Caused by Bergeyella zoohelcum . Journal of the Formosan Medical Association . 106 . 7 . 573–576 . 2007 . Lin . Wei-Ru . Chen . Yao-Shen . Liu . Yung-Ching . free .
29. Web site: Animal and Human Bites . National Health Service (NHS) . 17 October 2017 . 12 January 2019 . 13 January 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190113122443/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/animal-and-human-bites/ . live .
30. Bhaumik. Soumyadeep. Kirubakaran. Richard. Chaudhuri. Sirshendu. 2019-12-06. Primary closure versus delayed or no closure for traumatic wounds due to mammalian bite. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2019. 12. CD011822. 10.1002/14651858.CD011822.pub2. 1469-493X. 6894945. 31805611.
31. 10.1136/ip.2007.016220 . 18836045 . Dog bites: Still a problem? . Injury Prevention . 14 . 5 . 296–301 . 2008 . Gilchrist . J . Sacks . J J . White . D . Kresnow . M-J . 8417910 .
32. Web site: Preventing Dog Bites . 5 May 2017 . 17 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190417073156/https://www.cdc.gov/features/dog-bite-prevention/index.html . dead . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
33. Langley . Ricky L. . Human Fatalities Resulting From Dog Attacks in the United States, 1979–2005 . Wilderness & Environmental Medicine . March 2009 . 20 . 1 . 19–25 . 10.1580/08-WEME-OR-213.1. 19364181 . free .
34. Beck, A.M. and Jones, B.A. Unreported dog bites in children. Public Health Rep. 1985; 100: 315–321
35. Hanna, T.L. and Selby, L.A. Characteristics of the human and pet populations in animal bite incidents recorded at two Air Force bases. Public Health Rep. 1981; 96: 580–584
36. Beck, A.M. and Jones, B.A. Unreported dog bites in children. Public Health Rep. 1985; 100: 315-321
37. Weiss, H.B., Friedman, D.I., and Cohen, J.H. Incidence of dog bite injuries treated in emergency departments. JAMA. 1998; 279: 51–53
38. Hoff, G.L., Cai, J., Kendrick, R., and Archer, R. Emergency department visits and hospitalizations resulting from dog bites, Kansas City, Mo, 1982–2002. Mo Med. 2005; 102: 565–568
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40. Patrick, G.R. and O'Rourke, K.M. Dog and cat bites: epidemiologic analysis suggest different prevention strategies. Public Health Rep. 1998; 113: 252–257
41. American Veterinary Medical Association Task Force on Canine Aggression and Human-Canine Interactions. A community approach to dog bite prevention. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2001; 218: 1732–1749
42. Web site: Dog-Bite-Related Fatalities -- United States, 1995-1996 . . Center for Disease Control . 31 October 2019 . 19 September 1998 . 18 January 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200118195403/https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00047723.htm . live .
43. News: Reuters. Stray dog pack attacks Albanian town . IOL . 13 October 2004 . 21 January 2008 . An Albanian town had to call in police and hunters after a pack of 200 stray mountain dogs attacked at least nine people. Headed by a clearly identifiable leader, the snarling pack overran the main street of the small northern town of Mamurras, its mayor said on Wednesday. "Even in the movies I have never seen a horde of 200 stray dogs from the mountains attacking people in the middle of a town," Anton Frroku said on Wednesday. He said the dogs bit at least nine people, aged from 20 to 60, dragging them to the ground and inflicting serious wounds. . https://web.archive.org/web/20071222003340/http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1 . 22 December 2007 . dead .
44. Web site: CHART: Only 15 Americans Died From Terrorism Last Year — Fewer Than From Dog Bites Or Lightning Strikes. ThinkProgress. 25 August 2011 . 23 June 2019. 23 June 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190623205151/https://thinkprogress.org/chart-only-15-americans-died-from-terrorism-last-year-fewer-than-from-dog-bites-or-lightning-strikes-398a59292832/. live.
45. Web site: Injury Facts Chart . National Safety Council . 9 April 2015 . 14 April 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150414045943/http://www.nsc.org/learn/safety-knowledge/Pages/injury-facts-chart.aspx . live .
46. 10.1016/S0929-6646(07)60008-4 . 17660147 . Cellulitis and Bacteremia Caused by Bergeyella zoohelcum . Journal of the Formosan Medical Association . 106 . 7 . 573–576 . 2007 . Lin . Wei-Ru . Chen . Yao-Shen . Liu . Yung-Ching . free .
47. Rajshekar . Mithun . Blizzard . Leigh . Julian . Roberta . Williams . Anne-Marie . Tennant . Marc . Forrest . Alex . Walsh . Laurence J. . Wilson . Gary . 2017 . The incidence of public sector hospitalisations due to dog bites in Australia 2001–2013 . Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health . 41 . 4 . 377–380 . 10.1111/1753-6405.12630 . 28712151 . 1326-0200. 10072/346474 . free .
48. Web site: Tausende Verletzte durch Hundebisse(Thousands injured by dog bites). Die Presse. 5 May 2017. 5 October 2011. de. 4 August 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170804172913/http://diepresse.com/home/panorama/oesterreich/660724/Tausende-Verletzte-durch-Hundebisse. live.
49. Langley. Ricky L.. 1 March 2009. Human Fatalities Resulting From Dog Attacks in the United States, 1979–2005. Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. en. 20. 1. 19–25. 10.1580/08-WEME-OR-213.1. 1080-6032. 19364181. free. 5 November 2019. 26 June 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200626165530/https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(09)70079-1/abstract. live.
50. Web site: Walden. Charlotte. State Dangerous Dog Laws. Animal Legal & Historical Center. Michigan State University. 1 October 2017. 11 October 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181011011211/https://www.animallaw.info/topic/state-dangerous-dog-laws. live.
51. See, e.g., California Court Forms MC-600, MC-601 (A notice of hearing that bears the warning: "DO NOT BRING THE DOG TO THE HEARING."), MC-602, and MC-603
52. Web site: California Food & Agriculture Code, Sec. 31601. California Legislative Information. California State Legislature. 1 October 2017. 12 August 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180812021759/https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=FAC&sectionNum=31601. live.
53. Web site: Texas Health & Safety Code, Sec. 822.001 et seq. Texas State Legislature. 1 October 2017. 9 October 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171009160608/http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/HS/htm/HS.822.htm. live.
54. See, e.g., News: Waterman. Cole. Bay City attorney offers legal perspective on felony dog bite case. 1 October 2017. MLive. 7 January 2011. 12 August 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180812053541/https://www.mlive.com/news/bay-city/index.ssf/2011/01/bay_city_attorney_offers_legal.html. live.
55. News: Sytsma. Craig. Couple Whose Dogs Fatally Mauled Jogger Charged With Murder. 1 October 2017. CBSDetroit. 1 August 2014. 2 March 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190302093950/https://detroit.cbslocal.com/2014/08/01/murder-hearing-for-albanian-couple-whose-cane-corso-dogs-killed-jogger/. live.
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