In complex analysis (a branch of mathematics), a pole is a certain type of singularity of a complex-valued function of a complex variable. It is the simplest type of non-removable singularity of such a function (see essential singularity). Technically, a point is a pole of a function if it is a zero of the function and is holomorphic (i.e. complex differentiable) in some neighbourhood of .
A function is meromorphic in an open set if for every point of there is a neighborhood of in which at least one of and is holomorphic.
If is meromorphic in, then a zero of is a pole of, and a pole of is a zero of . This induces a duality between zeros and poles, that is fundamental for the study of meromorphic functions. For example, if a function is meromorphic on the whole complex plane plus the point at infinity, then the sum of the multiplicities of its poles equals the sum of the multiplicities of its zeros.
A function of a complex variable is holomorphic in an open domain if it is differentiable with respect to at every point of . Equivalently, it is holomorphic if it is analytic, that is, if its Taylor series exists at every point of, and converges to the function in some neighbourhood of the point. A function is meromorphic in if every point of has a neighbourhood such that at least one of and is holomorphic in it.
A zero of a meromorphic function is a complex number such that . A pole of is a zero of .
If is a function that is meromorphic in a neighbourhood of a point
z0
| n | |
| (z-z | |
| 0) |
f(z)
z0
z0
z0
|n|
|n|=1.
This characterization of zeros and poles implies that zeros and poles are isolated, that is, every zero or pole has a neighbourhood that does not contain any other zero and pole.
Because of the order of zeros and poles being defined as a non-negative number and the symmetry between them, it is often useful to consider a pole of order as a zero of order and a zero of order as a pole of order . In this case a point that is neither a pole nor a zero is viewed as a pole (or zero) of order 0.
A meromorphic function may have infinitely many zeros and poles. This is the case for the gamma function (see the image in the infobox), which is meromorphic in the whole complex plane, and has a simple pole at every non-positive integer. The Riemann zeta function is also meromorphic in the whole complex plane, with a single pole of order 1 at . Its zeros in the left halfplane are all the negative even integers, and the Riemann hypothesis is the conjecture that all other zeros are along .
In a neighbourhood of a point
z0,
f(z)=\sumk\geqak(z-
| k, | |
| z | |
| 0) |
a-n ≠ 0.
a-|n|(z-
| -|n| | |
| z | |
| 0) |
a|n|(z-
| |n| | |
| z | |
| 0) |
|n|
A function
z\mapstof(z)
\limz\to
| f(z) | |
| zn |
In this case, the point at infinity is a pole of order if, and a zero of order
|n|
For example, a polynomial of degree has a pole of degree at infinity.
The complex plane extended by a point at infinity is called the Riemann sphere.
If is a function that is meromorphic on the whole Riemann sphere, then it has a finite number of zeros and poles, and the sum of the orders of its poles equals the sum of the orders of its zeros.
Every rational function is meromorphic on the whole Riemann sphere, and, in this case, the sum of orders of the zeros or of the poles is the maximum of the degrees of the numerator and the denominator.
f(z)=
| 3 | |
| z |
is meromorphic on the whole Riemann sphere. It has a pole of order 1 or simple pole at
z=0,
f(z)=
| z+2 | |
| (z-5)2(z+7)3 |
is meromorphic on the whole Riemann sphere. It has a pole of order 2 at
z=5,
z=-7
z=-2,
f(z)=
| z-4 | |
| ez-1 |
is meromorphic in the whole complex plane, but not at infinity. It has poles of order 1 at
z=2\piniforn\inZ
ez
f(z)=z
has a single pole at infinity of order 1, and a single zero at the origin.
All above examples except for the third are rational functions. For a general discussion of zeros and poles of such functions, see .
The concept of zeros and poles extends naturally to functions on a complex curve, that is complex analytic manifold of dimension one (over the complex numbers). The simplest examples of such curves are the complex plane and the Riemann surface. This extension is done by transferring structures and properties through charts, which are analytic isomorphisms.
More precisely, let be a function from a complex curve to the complex numbers. This function is holomorphic (resp. meromorphic) in a neighbourhood of a point of if there is a chart
\phi
f\circ\phi-1
\phi(z).
\phi(z).
If the curve is compact, and the function is meromorphic on the whole curve, then the number of zeros and poles is finite, and the sum of the orders of the poles equals the sum of the orders of the zeros. This is one of the basic facts that are involved in Riemann–Roch theorem.