Clofazimine Explained

Clofazimine, sold under the brand name Lamprene, is a medication used together with rifampicin and dapsone to treat leprosy. It is specifically used for multibacillary (MB) leprosy and erythema nodosum leprosum.[1] Evidence is insufficient to support its use in other conditions though a retrospective study found it 95% effective in the treatment of Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) when administered with a macrolide and ethambutol,[2] as well as the drugs amikacin and clarithromycin.[3] However, in the United States, clofazimine is considered an orphan drug, is unavailable in pharmacies, and its use in the treatment of MAC is overseen by the Food and Drug Administration.[4] It is taken orally.

Common side effects include abdominal pain, diarrhea, itchiness, dry skin, and change in skin color. It can also cause swelling of the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, increased blood sugar, and sensitivity to the sun.[1] It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe. Clofazimine is a phenazine dye and is believed to work by interfering with DNA.

Clofazimine was discovered in the 1950s at Trinity College, Dublin,[5] and approved for medical use in the United States in 1986.[6] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[7] In the United States it is not available commercially but can be obtained from the US Department of Health and Human Services.[6]

Medical uses

The primary use of clofazimine is for the treatment of leprosy.[6] Other uses have not been proven to be safe or effective.[6]

It has been studied in combination with other antimycobacterial drugs to treat Mycobacterium avium infections in people with HIV/AIDS and Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis. Clofazimine also has a marked anti-inflammatory effect and is given to control the leprosy reaction, erythema nodosum leprosum (ENL). (From AMA Drug Evaluations Annual, 1993, p1619). The drug is given as an alternative to people who can not tolerate the effects of dapsone for leprosy.[8]

Early research suggested clofazimine inhibits the replication of SARS-CoV-2 in vitro and reduce viral load and inflammation in the lung in animal models [9]

Side effects

Clofazimine produces pink to brownish skin pigmentation in 75-100% of patients within a few weeks, as well as similar discoloration of most bodily fluids and secretions. These discolorations are reversible but may take months to years to disappear. There is evidence in medical literature that as a result of clofazimine administration, several patients have developed depression which in some cases resulted in suicide. It has been hypothesized that the depression was a result of this chronic skin discoloration.[10]

Cases of ichthyosis and skin dryness are also reported in response to this drug (8%-28%), as well as rash and itchiness (1-5%).

Mechanism

Clofazimine works by binding to the guanine bases of bacterial DNA, thereby blocking the template function of the DNA and inhibiting bacterial proliferation.[11] [12] It also increases activity of bacterial phospholipase A2, leading to release and accumulation of lysophospholipids,[11] [12] which are toxic and inhibit bacterial proliferation.[13] [14]

Clofazimine is also a FIASMA (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase).[15]

Metabolism

Clofazimine has a biological half life of about 70 days. Autopsies performed on those who have died while on clofazimine show crystal-like aggregates in the intestinal mucosa, liver, spleen, and lymph nodes.[16]

History

Clofazimine, initially known as B663, was first synthesised in 1954 by a team of scientists at Trinity College, Dublin: Frank Winder, J.G. Belton, Stanley McElhinney, M.L. Conalty, Seán O'Sullivan, and Dermot Twomey, led by Vincent Barry. Clofazimine was originally intended as an anti-tuberculosis drug but proved ineffective. In 1959, a researcher named Y. T. Chang identified its effectiveness against leprosy. After clinical trials in Nigeria and elsewhere during the 1960s, Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis launched the product in 1969 under the brand name Lamprene.

Novartis was granted FDA approval of clofazimine in December 1986 as an orphan drug. The drug is currently no longer commercially available in the United States as Novartis has discontinued production of clofazimine for the US market and no generic or other brand names are marketed in the US although it retains FDA approval.[17]

Society and culture

Clofazimine is marketed under the trade name Lamprene by Novartis although its discontinued in some countries like the US. Other brands are also available in many countries. Another producer of the clofazimine molecule is Sangrose Laboratories, located in Mavelikara, India.

Research

The immunosuppressive effects of clofazimine were immediately noticed when applied in animal model. Macrophages were first reported to be inhibited due to the stabilization of lysosomal membrane by clofazimine.[18] Clofazimine also showed a dosage-dependent inhibition of neutrophil motility, lymphocyte transformation,[19] mitogen-induced PBMC proliferation[20] and complement-mediated solubilization of pre-formed immune complexes in vitro.[21] A mechanistic studying of clofazimine in human T cells revealed that this drug is a Kv1.3 (KCNA3) channel blocker.[22] This indicates that clofazimine will be potentially used for treatment of multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and type 1 diabetes. Because the Kv1.3-high effector memory T cells (TEM) are actively involved in the development of these diseases,[23] and Kv1.3 activity is essential for stimulation and proliferation of TEM by regulating calcium influx in the T cells.[24] Several clinical trials were also conducted looking for its immunosuppressive activity even before it was approved for leprosy by FDA. It was first reported to be effective in treating chronic discoid lupus erythematosus with 17 out of 26 patients got remission.[25] But later another group found it was ineffective in treating diffuse, photosensitive, systemic lupus erythematosus.[26] Clofazimine also has been sporadically reported with some success in other autoimmune diseases such as psoriasis,[27] Miescher's granulomatous cheilitis.[28]

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: WHO Model Formulary 2008 . 2009 . 9789241547659 . ((World Health Organization)) . Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR . 10665/44053 . World Health Organization . World Health Organization . free . 132 .
  2. Jarand J, Davis JP, Cowie RL, Field SK, Fisher DA . Long-term Follow-up of Mycobacterium avium Complex Lung Disease in Patients Treated With Regimens Including Clofazimine and/or Rifampin . Chest . 149 . 5 . 1285–1293 . May 2016 . 26513209 . 10.1378/chest.15-0543 .
  3. Web site: Clofazimine Prevents the Regrowth of Mycobacterium abscessus and Mycobacterium avium Type Strains Exposed to Amikacin and Clarithromycin.
  4. Web site: Clofazimine in the Treatment of Pulmonary Mycobacterium Avium Complex (MAC) | Clinical Research Trial Listing (Mycobacterium avium Complex | MAC Infection (Mycobacterium Avium Complex) | Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare Infection) (NCT02968212). 2020-11-11. 2022-09-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20220913012329/https://www.centerwatch.com/clinical-trials/listings/185340/clofazimine-in-the-treatment-of-pulmonary-mycobacterium-avium-complex-mac/. dead.
  5. Book: Greenwood D . Antimicrobial Drugs: Chronicle of a Twentieth Century Medical Triumph . 2008 . OUP Oxford . 9780199534845 . 200 . en . By 1954 related molecules known as iminophenazines were being investigated... one of the first ones to be made, originally given the laboratory code B663 ... B663—subsequently called clofazimine.
  6. Web site: Clofazimine. The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. 8 December 2016. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20161220231051/https://www.drugs.com/monograph/clofazimine.html. 20 December 2016.
  7. Book: ((World Health Organization)) . World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019 . 2019 . 10665/325771 . World Health Organization . World Health Organization . Geneva . WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO . free .
  8. Clinical Microbiology Made Ridiculously Simple
  9. Yuan S, Yin X, Meng X, Chan JF, Ye ZW, Riva L, Pache L, Chan CC, Lai PM, Chan CC, Poon VK, Lee AC, Matsunaga N, Pu Y, Yuen CK, Cao J, Liang R, Tang K, Sheng L, Du Y, Xu W, Lau CY, Sit KY, Au WK, Wang R, Zhang YY, Tang YD, Clausen TM, Pihl J, Oh J, Sze KH, Zhang AJ, Chu H, Kok KH, Wang D, Cai XH, Esko JD, Hung IF, Li RA, Chen H, Sun H, Jin DY, Sun R, Chanda SK, Yuen KY . 6 . Clofazimine broadly inhibits coronaviruses including SARS-CoV-2 . Nature . 593 . 7859 . 418–423 . May 2021 . 33727703 . 10.1038/s41586-021-03431-4 . 232262689 . free . 2021Natur.593..418Y . 7553155 .
  10. Book: Brown S . Psychiatric Side Effects of Prescription and Over-the-counter Medications: Recognition and Management. 1998. American Psychiatric Pub. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160305024758/https://books.google.ca/books?id=K7kevbILCuQC&pg=RA2-PA1985&dq=clofazimine+suicide&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=clofazimine%20suicide&f=false. 2016-03-05. 9780880488686.
  11. Arbiser JL, Moschella SL . Clofazimine: a review of its medical uses and mechanisms of action . Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology . 32 . 2 Pt 1 . 241–247 . February 1995 . 7829710 . 10.1016/0190-9622(95)90134-5 .
  12. Morrison NE, Marley GM . The mode of action of clofazimine DNA binding studies . International Journal of Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases . 44 . 1–2 . 133–134 . 1976 . 945233 .
  13. Dennis, E. A. 1983. Phospholipases, p. 307-353. In P. D. Boyer(ed.), The enzymes, 3rd ed., vol. 16. Lipid enzymology. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
  14. Kagan VE . Tocopherol stabilizes membrane against phospholipase A, free fatty acids, and lysophospholipids . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences . 570 . 1 . 121–135 . 1989 . 2698101 . 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1989.tb14913.x . 44638207 . 1989NYASA.570..121K .
  15. Kornhuber J, Muehlbacher M, Trapp S, Pechmann S, Friedl A, Reichel M, Mühle C, Terfloth L, Groemer TW, Spitzer GM, Liedl KR, Gulbins E, Tripal P . 6 . Identification of novel functional inhibitors of acid sphingomyelinase . PLOS ONE . 6 . 8 . e23852 . 2011 . 21909365 . 3166082 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0023852 . free . 2011PLoSO...623852K .
  16. Baik J, Rosania GR . Molecular imaging of intracellular drug-membrane aggregate formation . Molecular Pharmaceutics . 8 . 5 . 1742–1749 . October 2011 . 21800872 . 3185106 . 10.1021/mp200101b .
  17. Web site: Lamprene (clofazimine) dosing, indications, interactions, adverse effects, and more . 2014-06-13 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20140709002738/http://reference.medscape.com/drug/clofazimine-342661 . 2014-07-09 .
  18. Conalty ML, Barry VC, Jina A . The antileprosy agent B.663 (Clofazimine) and the reticuloendothelial system . International Journal of Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases . 39 . 2 . 479–492 . Apr 1971 . 4948088 .
  19. Gatner EM, Anderson R, van Remsburg CE, Imkamp FM . The in vitro and in vivo effects of clofazimine on the motility of neutrophils and transformation of lymphocytes from normal individuals . Leprosy Review . 53 . 2 . 85–90 . June 1982 . 10.5935/0305-7518.19820010 . 7098757 . 46460241 . free .
  20. van Rensburg CE, Gatner EM, Imkamp FM, Anderson R . Effects of clofazimine alone or combined with dapsone on neutrophil and lymphocyte functions in normal individuals and patients with lepromatous leprosy . Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy . 21 . 5 . 693–697 . May 1982 . 7049077 . 181995 . 10.1128/aac.21.5.693 .
  21. Kashyap A, Sehgal VN, Sahu A, Saha K . Anti-leprosy drugs inhibit the complement-mediated solubilization of pre-formed immune complexes in vitro . International Journal of Immunopharmacology . 14 . 2 . 269–273 . February 1992 . 1624226 . 10.1016/0192-0561(92)90039-N .
  22. Ren YR, Pan F, Parvez S, Fleig A, Chong CR, Xu J, Dang Y, Zhang J, Jiang H, Penner R, Liu JO . 6 . Clofazimine inhibits human Kv1.3 potassium channel by perturbing calcium oscillation in T lymphocytes . PLOS ONE . 3 . 12 . e4009 . Dec 2008 . 19104661 . 2602975 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0004009 . free . 2008PLoSO...3.4009R .
  23. Beeton C, Wulff H, Standifer NE, Azam P, Mullen KM, Pennington MW, Kolski-Andreaco A, Wei E, Grino A, Counts DR, Wang PH, LeeHealey CJ, S Andrews B, Sankaranarayanan A, Homerick D, Roeck WW, Tehranzadeh J, Stanhope KL, Zimin P, Havel PJ, Griffey S, Knaus HG, Nepom GT, Gutman GA, Calabresi PA, Chandy KG . 6 . Kv1.3 channels are a therapeutic target for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 103 . 46 . 17414–17419 . November 2006 . 17088564 . 1859943 . 10.1073/pnas.0605136103 . free . 2006PNAS..10317414B .
  24. Wulff H, Calabresi PA, Allie R, Yun S, Pennington M, Beeton C, Chandy KG . The voltage-gated Kv1.3 K(+) channel in effector memory T cells as new target for MS . The Journal of Clinical Investigation . 111 . 11 . 1703–1713 . June 2003 . 12782673 . 156104 . 10.1172/JCI16921 .
  25. Mackey JP, Barnes J . Clofazimine in the treatment of discoid lupus erythematosus . The British Journal of Dermatology . 91 . 1 . 93–96 . July 1974 . 4851057 . 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1974.tb06723.x . 43528153 .
  26. Jakes JT, Dubois EL, Quismorio FP . Antileprosy drugs and lupus erythematosus . Annals of Internal Medicine . 97 . 5 . 788 . November 1982 . 7137755 . 10.7326/0003-4819-97-5-788_2 .
  27. Chuaprapaisilp T, Piamphongsant T . Treatment of pustular psoriasis with clofazimine . The British Journal of Dermatology . 99 . 3 . 303–305 . September 1978 . 708598 . 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1978.tb02001.x . 36255192 .
  28. Podmore P, Burrows D . Clofazimine--an effective treatment for Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome or Miescher's cheilitis . Clinical and Experimental Dermatology . 11 . 2 . 173–178 . March 1986 . 3720016 . 10.1111/j.1365-2230.1986.tb00443.x . 631224 .

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