Cannabis in the United Kingdom explained

Cannabis in the United Kingdom is illegal for recreational use and is classified as a Class B drug. In 2004, the United Kingdom made cannabis a Class C drug with less severe penalties, but it was moved back to Class B in 2009. Medical use of cannabis, when prescribed by a registered specialist doctor, was legalised in November 2018.

Cannabis is widely used as an illegal drug in the UK, while other strains lower in THC have been used industrially for over a thousand years for fibre, oil and seeds. Cannabis has been restricted as a drug in the United Kingdom since 1928, though its usage as a recreational drug was limited until the 1960s, when increasing popularity led to its stricter 1971 classification.

Despite the fact that cannabis is still illegal in the UK, with limited availability for medical use, the United Kingdom was the world's largest exporter of legal cannabis.[1]

History

Industrial use

The oldest evidence of cannabis in Britain was from some seeds found in a well in York;[2] seeds found at Micklegate were associated with a 10th-century Viking settlement.[3] Since it appears to have been mostly grown around the coastal areas it suggests the main reason for cultivating it was as a source of vegetable fibre which was stronger and more durable than stinging nettle or flax. This makes it ideal for making into cordage, ropes, fishing nets, and canvas.[4] [5]

With hempen ropes being fundamental to the success of the English Navy, King Henry VIII in 1533 mandated that landowners grow allotments of hemp; Elizabeth I later increased those quotas, and the penalties for failing to meet them.[6] As fibre became more available and the growing of hemp became more widespread, people began to find many other uses for the crop. It became a very important part of the British economy. Eventually, demand had expanded to the point that the demand for more fibre was part of the driving force to colonise new lands. Thanks to its hardiness and ease of cultivation, it became an ideal crop to grow in the new British colonies. Moreover, the naval ships built to protect the new colonies and those built to bring the hemp back, also increased demand, as much of their two hundred tonnes of ropes and sail cloth had to be renewed every two years.

Use as a drug

Cannabis gained new attention in the English-speaking Western medical world at the introduction of Irish physician William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, who had studied the drug while working as a medical officer in Bengal with the East India Company, and brought a quantity of cannabis with him on his return to Britain in 1842.[7]

Use of psychoactive cannabis was already prevalent in some of the new territories that Britain added to its empire, including South Asia and Southern Africa. Cannabis as a drug also spread slowly in other parts of the Empire; cannabis was introduced to Jamaica in the 1850s–1860s by indentured servants imported from India during British rule of both nations; many of the terms used in cannabis culture in Jamaica are based on Indian terms, including the term ganja.[8] [9] [10]

Prohibition

Cannabis prohibition began earlier in Britain's colonies than in Britain itself; attempts at criminalising cannabis in British India were made, and mooted, in 1838, 1871, and 1877.[11] In 1894 the British Indian Hemp Drugs Commission judged that "little injury" was caused to society by the use of cannabis. Cannabis was banned in Mauritius in 1840,[12] Singapore in 1870,[13] Jamaica in 1913,[14] East Africa Protectorate in 1914,[15] and in Sierra Leone in 1920.[16] In 1922, South Africa banned cannabis, and appealed to the League of Nations to include cannabis among prohibited drugs in its upcoming convention.[17] [18]

In Britain itself, in 1928 following its ratification of the 1925 International Opium Convention (which required some limited controls over pure cannabis as a pharmaceutical ingredient, but not over prepared medications containing cannabis),[19] the United Kingdom first prohibited cannabis as a drug, adding cannabis as an addendum to the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920.[20] [21]

Cannabis remained a fringe issue in the British public consciousness through the Interwar years and beyond, associated with society's margins: "coloured seamen of the East End and clubs frequented by Negro theatrical performers".[22] This perception was strained by a 1950 police raid on Club Eleven in Soho which recovered cannabis and cocaine, and led to the arrest of several young white British men.[23] [22] With the changing youth and drug cultures globally, cannabis arrests increased dramatically in the UK: "from 235 in 1960 to 4,683 by the end of the decade, principally involving white middle class youths with no previous convictions".[24] By 1973, cannabis possession convictions in the UK had reached 11,111 annually.[25]

With the passage of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, cannabis was listed as a Class B drug. It remained Class B, except for the 2004–2009 period where it was classified as Class C, a lower punishment category, before being moved back to B.[26] [27] [28]

Cultivation

The UK produces cannabis for use as a drug in illegal facilities inside private houses or apartments. It is also produced on large scale for medical use. The medical production is so high that the UK is the highest exporter of cannabis in the world. After cannabis as a drug was rescheduled as Class B in 2008 (see below), more people started reporting on their suspicions of illegal operations and in 2009-2010 almost 7000 illegal facilities were found by police in one year. It has been reported that sometimes Vietnamese teenagers are trafficked to the United Kingdom and forced to work in these facilities. When police raid them, trafficked victims are typically sent to prison. Sometimes they are sent home.[29] [30]

Usage

Recreational drug

Cannabis is widely used throughout the United Kingdom, by people of all ages and from all socio-economic backgrounds.[31] [32] In 2017, 7.2% of 16 to 59-year-olds reported using cannabis in the last year, making it the most commonly used illegal drug in the United Kingdom.[33] The European drug report 2017 found that 29.4% of those aged 15–64 had used cannabis at least once.[34] This compares with France which has some of the strongest drug laws in Europe with 40.9% and Portugal which views drug taking as a medical issue and therefore has far more relaxed laws at 9.4%

Cannabis is at times linked to young people beginning to smoke tobacco as cannabis is often smoked with tobacco in the United Kingdom, unlike in many other parts of the world. As well as the use of tobacco when smoking cannabis, as a spliff, many people in Britain use a "roach card" (card or similar material rolled into a cylinder to serve as a rudimentary filter / structural support). As the option of vaporisation becomes more readily available, and as the market for hashish is replaced by herbal cannabis grown in the UK which can be smoked pure in a joint, this association of mixing cannabis with tobacco is becoming weaker. The higher relative price of cannabis compared to the rest of the world remains the most likely explanation for the mixing of cannabis with tobacco (although many users do this purely to ensure the "joint" smokes correctly, and to prevent it from going out).

Mental health concerns

In February 2015, a team of researchers at the Institute Of Psychiatry, King's College London, led by Dr. Marta Di Forti, found that use of high potency cannabis known as skunk increased the risk of psychosis by three times, compared to non-use. The study of 780 people also found the risk of psychosis was five times higher for those who used cannabis every day.[35]

Industrial cannabis

Since 1993, the Home Office has been granting licences for the purposes of cultivating and processing cannabis. The UK government now provides free business advice and support services for growers and processors of cannabis for fibre. They can also issue licences for importing fibre in the form of hemp from abroad.[36] The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) provides help and advice with obtaining financial assistance via the Single Payment Scheme. In England further funding may be available from Rural Development Programme for England.

Animal feed

Mice, rats and fowl are all known to like cannabis seed, and it is a favoured food amongst some British pigeon fanciers. The linnet's fondness of the cannabis seed has earned it the Latin species name of cannabina. Cannabis seed is too expensive to be used as general feed stock, but once the oil has been pressed out the remaining seed cake is still nutritious.

The plant itself has not been used as fodder as too much makes animals sicken, and due to its unpleasant taste they will not eat it unless there is no other food available. Hemp hurd, also called shives, is the soft core of the cannabis plant which remains after the fibres are removed, and provides good animal bedding which can absorb more moisture than either straw or wood shavings.[37]

Boiled cannabis seed is frequently used by British sport fishermen.[38]

Legal status

See main article: Cannabis classification in the United Kingdom.

Recreational use

Cannabis is illegal to possess, grow, distribute or sell in the UK.[39] It is a Class B drug, with penalties for unlicenced dealing, unlicenced production and unlicenced trafficking of up to 14 years in prison, an unlimited fine, or both. The maximum penalty for possession of cannabis is five years in prison and an unlimited fine. A "Cannabis warning" can be issued for small amounts of cannabis if it is found to be for personal use. This entails the police keeping a record, albeit one which carries no fine and does not show up on a standard DBS Check.[40]

Cannabis has remained a Class B drug since the 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act, except for a period from 2004 to 2009 during which it was classified as Class C, a lower punishment category.[41] The 2004 reclassification (originally announced in 2001) removed the threat of arrest for possession of small amounts, for the purpose of allowing police to focus on harder drugs and violent crime.[42] [43] In May 2008, under the leadership of Prime Minister Gordon Brown, it was announced that cannabis would be moved back to Schedule B,[44] against the recommendations of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs.[45]

Enforcement

In the survey-year ending March 2014, possession of cannabis offences accounted for 67% of all police recorded drug offences in the UK.[46]

In 2015, County Durham police announced that they will no longer be targeting people who grow cannabis for personal consumption unless they are being "blatant". Derbyshire, Dorset and Surrey police announced that they will also be implementing similar schemes. The move is in response to significant budget cuts, which means police forces are having to prioritise more pressing areas.[47]

According to figures obtained through a Freedom of Information request, there are large differences by county regarding how many cases actually result in an offender being charged. In 2016, Hampshire police had the most charges at 65%, while Cambridge had the lowest proportion of charges at only 14%.[48]

Medical use

Medical use of cannabis was legalised in the UK on 1 November 2018,[49] after the cases of two epileptic children who benefited from using cannabis brought increased public attention to the issue. The children (Billy Caldwell, 12, and Alfie Dingley, 6) both experienced significant improvement in their conditions after they began using cannabis, but were initially not allowed to continue their treatment under UK law.[50] [51] This led to increased public outcry, particularly in the case of Billy Caldwell who was hospitalised with life-threatening seizures after his medication was confiscated by authorities.[52]

On 20 June 2018, then Health Secretary Jeremy Hunt announced his support for the medical use of cannabis and that a review would be undertaken to study changes to the law.[53] On 26 July 2018, Home Secretary Sajid Javid announced that cannabis products would be made legal for patients with an "exceptional clinical need", and that cannabis would be moved from a Schedule I classification to Schedule II.[54] [55] On 11 October, the new provisions were officially presented and accepted in the House and the policy came into effect on 1 November 2018.[56] [57] [58]

A licence is available from the home office to import prescribed medicinal cannabis.[59] The first private, stand-alone CQC registered cannabis clinic was opened by Sapphire medical in December 2019,[60] since then a number of private clinics have opened across the UK. The UK's first medical cannabis registry set up and run by Drug Science charity was launched in August 2020. It is the biggest observational medical cannabis study in the UK with over 3,500 patients.[61] The first UK MHRA approved medical cannabis study was approved by REC (the MHRA ethics committee) in November 2021 with the study title of "CANPAIN feasibility study: evaluating the feasibility of undertaking a pragmatic real world trial investigating CBMP in chronic pain patients"[62] with IRAS project ID 304548 of which will be provided by LVL Health[63] in the UK. It is now possible to obtain a private prescription for medical cannabis, providing a patient can show through medical records they have a qualifying condition.

Treatment must be initiated by a specialist consultant and may be continued under a shared care agreement by a GP or non-medical prescriber.[64] NHS guidance states that medical cannabis should only be prescribed when there is clear published evidence of its benefit and other treatment options have been exhausted.[58]

Sativex is an approved cannabis-derived medicine and is indicated for the treatment of spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis.[65] Nabilone is another cannabinoid drug that has been approved by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) to treat nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy.[66] Nabilone is a synthetic form of THC and not naturally derived from the plant.

Cannabidiol (CBD) oil is legal for use and sale in the UK without a prescription, as long as when it is sold to the public it is not sold as medicine. The CBD drug Epidiolex is approved for use in the EU[67] and can be prescribed on the NHS for children and adults with rare forms of epilepsy such as Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, Dravet syndrome and tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC).[68] [69]

On 31 October 2020, it was reported that the NHS has been repeatedly refusing to fund medical cannabis for children with severe epilepsy. It was reported that at least twenty families are paying for private prescriptions after not being provided by the NHS. One family reported paying £2,000 a month for their 11-year-old daughter, who had been having up to 300 seizures a day. Doctors put her into an induced coma and transported her to intensive care. After an anonymous donation was given to one of the child's parents of £2,500, the parent bought cannabis oil for their child, who after taking it was allowed home within two days. The Department of Health and Social Care said more research is needed before it can routinely prescribe cannabis-based medicines. Peter Carroll of the campaign group End Our Pain said there are dozens more families in a similar position or unable to pay for the drugs at all.[70]

Overseas territories

See also: Cannabis in Bermuda, Cannabis in the Cayman Islands, Cannabis in Gibraltar and Cannabis in Montserrat.

Medical use of cannabis was legalised following a ruling by the Supreme Court of Bermuda in 2016.[71] [72]

In 2016, the governor of the British Overseas Territory of the Cayman Islands approved a change to the Misuse of Drugs Law to allow the importation and use of CBD oil for medical purposes.[73]

Advocacy for law reform

Various organisations have been setup in the UK to seek regulatory and/or policy change around cannabis and/or cannabis-based products.

The former Prime Minister, David Cameron, when serving in opposition, sat on the Select Committee on Home Affairs and voted to call on the Government to "initiate a discussion" within the UN about "alternative ways—including the possibility of legalisation and regulation—to tackle the global drugs dilemma".[79]

In June 2010, it was revealed that the Home Office had been avoiding complying with the FOI request "to avoid a focus on the gaps in the evidence base" that its current drug policy had.[80] [81] [82]

In 2011, the Global Commission on Drug Policy backed by Richard Branson and Judi Dench called for a review.[83] The Home Office response on behalf of the Prime Minister was: "We have no intention of liberalising our drugs laws. Drugs are illegal because they are harmful—they destroy lives and cause untold misery to families and communities".[83]

In 2012, a panel of MPs, as well as deputy prime-minister Nick Clegg, recommended that drug policy be reformed, as the current policy does not adequately deal with the problem. David Cameron rejected the idea, conflicting with comments he made in 2005 while competing for Conservative Party Leadership.[84]

In 2015, James Richard Owen, an economics student at Aberystwyth University, started a petition on the UK Government's official petitions website calling for the legalisation of the cultivation, sale and use of cannabis; it had gathered 218,995 signatures, far in excess of the 100,000 needed for it to be considered for debate in Parliament. Parliament debated this petition on 12 October 2015.[85]

A study published in March 2016 said that legalising cannabis in the UK would raise up to one billion pounds in tax a year and reduce the harm done to users and society. The study was carried out by a panel of experts including scientists, academics and police chiefs. It recommended legalising cannabis for over 18s, which could legally be purchased from licensed single-purpose stores. It also recommended that home-cultivation of cannabis should be legal for personal use and small-scale licensed cannabis social clubs should be legally allowed to be established. Under its recommendations, the price, potency and packaging of all sold cannabis would be controlled by the Government with a new regulator established to oversee the market, possibly modelled on Ofgem and Ofwat and drug production and sales would be taxed, raising, the panel claims, between £500m and £1bn a year.[86] Estimates by other reports have placed the value of a legalised cannabis market in the UK at between £1 billion to £3.5 billion and have said that it could cut costs across the justice system and become a job creator.[87] [88]

In March 2016, the Liberal Democrats became the first major political party in the UK to support the legalisation of cannabis.[89] [90] [91] [92] [93] The Green Party also support a legal and regulated cannabis market.[90] [88]

In early 2018, the Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA) published a report looking at the size of the UK cannabis market and the potential implications of legalisation. The report concluded that the current UK cannabis black market is worth over £2.5bn and cannabis tax yields could be between £204 million and £571 million.[94] The recommendation from the IEA is that if cannabis is legalised, the duty rate should not be too high, as high tax would make retail prices less competitive and could prevent significant shrinkage of the black market. Advocates of legalisation have stated that the legalisation of cannabis would take away sales and control from criminal gangs – who also push hard drugs – in favour legitimate and regulated businesses. Legalisation has also been advocated because it would ensure the drug meets acceptable standards and is pure, while also limiting the access of young people via a minimum age for purchase, possession and use.[95] [87]

The Head of Lifestyle Economics at the IEA described legalisation of cannabis as a "win-win-win", noting: "criminals lose a lucrative industry, consumers get a better, safer and cheaper product and the burden on the general taxpayer is reduced".[96]

In December 2021, then Lord Mayor of Belfast and Belfast City councillor for the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, Kate Nicholl, publicly called for the legalisation of cannabis. She also called for the opening of supervised injection sites in Belfast.[97]

Public opinion

A report conducted between 24 February and 14 March 2022 by Hanway and Savanta ComRes interviewed a nationally representative sample of 9,043 adults aged over 18 in several European countries, including the UK, regarding cannabis legalisation. 55% of UK respondents reported to be in favour of legal and regulated cannabis sales to over-18s, while 27% of UK respondents reported to be opposed and 16% stated neither support nor oppose. Of the 8 European countries surveyed in France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Portugal, Switzerland, and the UK, 55% overall reported to be in favour of legal and regulated cannabis sales to over-18s.[98] [99] [100]

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Narcotic Drugs - Estimated World Requirements for 2018 - Statistics for 2016 . live . International Narcotics Control Board . United Nations . https://web.archive.org/web/20181206002201/http://www.incb.org/documents/Narcotic-Drugs/Technical-Publications/2017/Narcotic_drugs_technical_publication_2017.pdf . 6 December 2018 . 5 December 2018.
  2. Book: Wild, John Peter . April 2003 . Textiles in Archaeology . 22 . Shire Publications . 978-0-85263-931-3.
  3. Book: Cannabis: Evolution and Ethnobotany. Clarke. Robert. Merlin. Mark. 1 September 2013. University of California Press. 978-0-520-95457-1. 118–.
  4. Fleming. Michael P.. Clarke. Robert C.. 1998. Physical evidence for the antiquity of Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabaceae). dead. Journal of the International Hemp Association. 5. 2. 80–92. https://web.archive.org/web/20110723135631/http://www.goa-shoom.net/botanica/Fleming%20and%20Clarke_antiquity%20of%20Cannabis%20sativa%20L_IJHA%201998.pdf. 23 July 2011.
  5. Whittington. Graeme. Edwards. Kevin J.. December 1990. The cultivation and utilisation of hemp in Scotland. Scottish Geographical Journal. 106. 3. 167–173. 10.1080/00369229018736795.
  6. Book: Deitch, Robert. Hemp: American History Revisited: The Plant with a Divided History. 2003. Algora Publishing. 978-0-87586-226-2. 12–.
  7. Book: Iversen, Leslie L.. The Science of Marijuana. 7 December 2007. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-988693-7. 110–. 7 November 2016. 20 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230420192120/https://books.google.com/books?id=sshsCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT110. live.
  8. Book: Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. Issitt. Micah. Main. Carlyn. 16 September 2014. ABC-CLIO. 978-1-61069-478-0. 123–.
  9. Book: Lee, Martin A.. Smoke Signals: A Social History of Marijuana - Medical, Recreational and Scientific. 14 August 2012. Simon and Schuster. 978-1-4391-0260-2. 143–.
  10. Book: Kalunta-Crumpton, Anita. Race, Ethnicity, Crime and Criminal Justice in the Americas. 25 January 2012. Palgrave Macmillan. 978-0-230-35805-8. 219–.
  11. Book: A Cannabis Reader: Global Issues and Local Experiences : Perspectives on Cannabis Controversies, Treatment and Regulation in Europe. 2008. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 978-92-9168-311-6. 100. 7 November 2016. 20 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230420192121/https://books.google.com/books?id=d_ElAQAAMAAJ. live.
  12. Book: A Collection of the Laws of Mauritius and Its Dependencies. 1867. By the authority of the Government. 541–. 15 December 2017. 20 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230420100007/https://books.google.com/books?id=0ktHAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA541. live.
  13. Book: Bunyapraphatsō̜n, Nanthawan. Medicinal and poisonous plants. Backhuys Publishers. 1999. 978-90-5782-042-7. 169.
  14. Book: Rockefeller, J.D.. Marijuana: A Complete Guide for Everyone. 15 September 2015. J.D. Rockefeller. 978-1-5175-3094-5. 9–.
  15. Book: Kenya Gazette. 15 October 1913. 882–.
  16. Book: The Culture of Mental Illness and Psychiatric Practice in Africa. Akyeampong. Emmanuel. Hill. Allan G.. Kleinman. Arthur M.. 1 May 2015. Indiana University Press. 978-0-253-01304-0. 39–.
  17. Book: Chanock, Martin. The Making of South African Legal Culture 1902-1936: Fear, Favour and Prejudice. 5 March 2001. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-79156-4. 94–.
  18. Book: Mills, James H.. Cannabis Britannica: Empire, Trade, and Prohibition 1800-1928. 11 September 2003. OUP Oxford. 978-0-19-155465-0. 160–1.
  19. Web site: Cannabis amnesia – Indian hemp parley at the Office International d’Hygiène Publique in 1935 - Authorea . 2023-12-26 . www.authorea.com . 10.22541/au.165237542.24089054/v1.
  20. Book: Manning, Paul. Drugs and Popular Culture. 11 January 2013. Routledge. 978-1-134-01211-4. 136–.
  21. Book: Porter, Bernard. Empire Ways: Aspects of British Imperialism. 30 October 2015. I.B.Tauris. 978-0-85773-959-9. 58–.
  22. Book: Kohn, Marek. Dope Girls: The Birth of the British Drug Underground. 7 March 2013. Granta Publications. 978-1-84708-886-4. 177–. 7 November 2016. 20 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230420215837/https://books.google.com/books?id=r5wu3JAHsowC&pg=PA177. live.
  23. Book: Easton, Mark. Britain Etc.. 1 March 2012. Simon and Schuster. 978-0-85720-143-0. 158–. 7 November 2016. 20 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230420215853/https://books.google.com/books?id=1Foq0qMS7usC&pg=PT158. live.
  24. Book: Newbold, Greg. Crime, Law and Justice in New Zealand. 3 June 2016. Routledge. 978-1-317-27561-9. 154–. 7 November 2016. 20 April 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230420215828/https://books.google.com/books?id=vMZJDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA154. live.
  25. Book: Muncey, Tessa. Creating Autoethnographies. 14 April 2010. SAGE Publications. 978-1-84787-473-3. 204–.
  26. News: Cannabis laws eased in drug policy shakeup. Travis. Alan. 24 October 2001. The Guardian. 15 December 2012. 1 October 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131001004536/http://www.theguardian.com/society/2001/oct/24/drugsandalcohol. live.
  27. Jason-Lloyd. Leonard. 2009. Cannabis Reclassification 2009. Criminal Law & Justice Weekly. 173. 30.
  28. News: Smith snubs experts over cannabis. 6 May 2008. Daily Express. 9 November 2016. https://archive.today/20161109144850/http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/43708/Smith-snubs-experts-over-cannabis. 9 November 2016. live.
  29. Web site: Trafficked and enslaved: the teenagers tending UK cannabis farms. Amelia Gentleman. 25 March 2017. 20 September 2017. The Guardian. 21 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170921074827/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/mar/25/trafficked-enslaved-teenagers-tending-uk-cannabis-farms-vietnamese. live.
  30. News: Children work in 'cannabis farms'. Rowan. Bridge. BBC News. 17 August 2010. 30 October 2019. 5 December 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191205184153/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-10998421. live.
  31. Miller. Patrick. Plant. Martin. 1 February 2002. Heavy cannabis use among UK teenagers: an exploration. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. Elsevier Science Ireland. 65. 3. 235–42. 10.1016/S0376-8716(01)00165-X. 11841895.
  32. Web site: Will British people ever think in metric?. Kelly. Jon. 21 December 2011. BBC News Magazine. 22 December 2011. 26 December 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141226015226/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-16245391. live.
  33. Web site: Drug misuse: findings from the 2017 to 2018 CSEW. GOV.UK. en. 5 December 2018. 6 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181206001651/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/drug-misuse-findings-from-the-2017-to-2018-csew. live.
  34. Web site: System Files . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20200217080554/http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/system/files/publications/4541/TDAT17001ENN.pdf . 17 February 2020 . www.emcdda.europa.eu.
  35. 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00117-5 . Proportion of patients in south London with first-episode psychosis attributable to use of high potency cannabis: A case-control study . The Lancet Psychiatry . March 2015 . 2 . 3 . 233–238 . Forti . Marta Di . Marconi . Arianna . Carra . Elena . Fraietta . Sara . Trotta . Antonella . Bonomo . Matteo . Bianconi . Francesca . Gardner-Sood . Poonam . O'Connor . Jennifer . Russo . Manuela . Stilo . Simona A. . Marques . Tiago Reis . Mondelli . Valeria . Dazzan . Paola . Pariante . Carmine . David . Anthony S. . Gaughran . Fiona . Atakan . Zerrin . Iyegbe . Conrad . Powell . John . Morgan . Craig . Lynskey . Michael . Murray . Robin M. . 26359901 . free .
  36. Web site: Industrial fibre crops: business opportunities for farmers . Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs . 13 June 2013 . 16 December 2013 . 16 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131216190143/https://www.gov.uk/industrial-fibre-crops . live .
  37. Hemcore animal bedding . Retrieved 15 May 2010.
  38. Book: The Angler's Weekend Book. Taverner. Eric. Moore. John. Read Books. 2006. 978-1-4067-9791-6. 109. 1935.
  39. Web site: United Kingdom Home Office . Drug Laws . 18 July 2011 . 15 March 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130315190739/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/drugs/drug-law/ . live .
  40. Web site: Cannabis warning. Unlock. 6 June 2023.
  41. News: Timeline: the use of cannabis. 16 June 2005. BBC News. 3 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180428131224/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/panorama/4079668.stm. 28 April 2018. live.
  42. News: Cannabis laws eased in drug policy shakeup. Travis. Alan. 24 October 2001. The Guardian. 3 November 2018. 29 September 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180929233429/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2001/oct/24/drugsandalcohol. live.
  43. News: Britain: Pot Reclassification Takes Effect Today . 3 November 2018 . NORML . 29 January 2004 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103210127/http://norml.org/news/2004/01/29/britain-pot-reclassification-takes-effect-today . live .
  44. News: Hope . Christopher . Cannabis to be reclassified as a class B drug . 3 November 2018 . The Telegraph . 7 May 2008 . 4 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181104010047/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1934756/Cannabis-to-be-reclassified-as-a-class-B-drug.html . live .
  45. News: Hope . Christopher . Advisors: Reclassifying cannabis will not work . 3 November 2018 . The Telegraph . 7 May 2008 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103214638/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1934788/Advisors-Reclassifying-cannabis-will-not-work.html . live .
  46. Web site: Statistical Report: Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending March 2014 . Office for National Statistics . July 2014 . 8 August 2014 . 92 . 10 August 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140810173635/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_371127.pdf . live .
  47. News: Three more police forces signal that they will turn blind eye to cannabis use. The Telegraph. en. 31 January 2017. 18 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170118211719/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/11767001/Three-more-police-forces-signal-that-they-will-turn-blind-eye-to-cannabis-use.html. live.
  48. Web site: Police are 'giving up' on cannabis. 23 August 2016. The Independent. en. 5 December 2018. 6 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181206054751/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/cannabis-arrests-charges-fall-police-giving-up-drug-policy-uk-a7206036.html. live.
  49. Web site: Home Office Circular 2018: Rescheduling of cannabis-based products for medicinal use in humans. 1 November 2018. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. Crime, Policing and Fire Group (CPFG) – Drugs and Alcohol Unit. 5 December 2018. 6 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181206001625/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/753366/Medicinal_Cannabis_-_Home_Office_Circular_2018_FINAL.pdf. live.
  50. News: Gayle . Damien . Medicinal cannabis: how two heartbreaking cases helped change law . 3 November 2018 . The Guardian . 26 July 2018 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103131530/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jul/26/medicinal-cannabis-how-two-heartbreaking-cases-helped-change-law . live .
  51. News: Alfie Dingley: Cannabis plea boy back in hospital . 3 November 2018 . BBC News . 3 March 2018 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103135753/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-coventry-warwickshire-43272112 . live .
  52. News: Smith-Spark . Laura . How Billy Caldwell case could end UK's medical marijuana ban . 3 November 2018 . CNN . 20 June 2018 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103131446/https://www.cnn.com/2018/06/20/health/medical-marijuana-law-uk-billy-caldwell-intl/index.html . live .
  53. News: Simons . Ned . Jeremy Hunt Reveals He Backs Legalising Use of Medicinal Cannabis Oil . 3 November 2018 . HuffPost . 18 June 2018 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103131412/https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/jeremy-hunt-reveals-he-backs-legalising-use-of-medicinal-cannabis-oil_uk_5b278337e4b0783ae12afcd5 . live .
  54. News: Medicinal cannabis products to be legalised . 3 November 2018 . BBC News . 26 July 2018 . 3 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181103132842/https://www.bbc.com/news/health-44968386 . live .
  55. News: Osborne . Samuel . Medicinal cannabis to be available on prescription in UK after being approved for use by government . 3 November 2018 . The Independent . 26 July 2018 . 23 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201123060342/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/medical-cannabis-uk-prescription-legal-epilepsy-pain-relief-home-office-moj-nhs-a8464766.html . live .
  56. News: Grierson . Jamie . UK doctors will be able to prescribe cannabis medicine next month . 3 November 2018 . The Guardian . 11 October 2018 . 6 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181106002738/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/oct/11/uk-to-allow-doctors-to-prescribe-cannabis-based-medicine-epilepsy-sajid-javid . live .
  57. Web site: Rescheduling of cannabis-based products for medicinal use:Written statement - HCWS994. UK Parliament. en. 5 December 2018. 6 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181206001719/https://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-statement/Commons/2018-10-11/HCWS994/. live.
  58. News: Medical cannabis products available on prescription . BBC News . 1 November 2018 . 6 March 2019 . 2 March 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190302122340/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-46045487 . live .
  59. Web site: United Kingdom Home Office . Guidance Controlled drugs: licences, fees and returns . 25 September 2018 . 16 November 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181116073620/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/controlled-drugs-licences-fees-and-returns . live .
  60. Web site: CQC registers first standalone medical cannabis clinic . Pharmaceutical Journal . 11 October 2019 . 11 October 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191011223704/https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/news-and-analysis/news/cqc-registers-first-standalone-medical-cannabis-clinic/20207178.article?firstPass=false . live .
  61. Web site: The UK's biggest observational medical cannabis study . Drug Science . 27 March 2023 . 27 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230327214336/https://www.drugscience.org.uk/t21data/ . live .
  62. 2022-03-15 . CANPAIN Feasibility Study: Evaluating the Feasibility of Subsequently Undertaking a Pragmatic Real World Trial Investigating CBMP in Chronic Pain Patients . live . Harley Street (CPC) Limited . https://web.archive.org/web/20220908231210/https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05288010 . 8 September 2022 . 8 September 2022.
  63. News: Correspondent . Eleanor Hayward, Health . 5,000 British adults could take part in cannabis trial . . en . 2022-09-08 . 0140-0460 . 8 September 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220908232709/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/5-000-british-adults-to-take-part-in-cannabis-trial-x6m9cg03w . live .
  64. News: Medicinal cannabis: Why has it taken so long to get to patients? . BBC News . 16 February 2019 . 6 March 2019 . 7 October 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201007230215/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-47241787 . live .
  65. Web site: Sativex Oromucosal Spray - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) - (eMC). www.medicines.org.uk. 5 December 2018. 4 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210204162637/https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/602/smpc. live.
  66. Web site: Nabilone 1mg Capsules - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC) - (eMC). www.medicines.org.uk. 5 December 2018. 6 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181206001612/https://www.medicines.org.uk/emc/product/6176/smpc. live.
  67. Web site: EMEA approval of Epidiolex . 22 August 2020 . 9 August 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210809152037/https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/epidyolex . live .
  68. Web site: Medical cannabis (and cannabis oils) . NHS . November 2018 . 27 March 2023 . 27 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230327102433/https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/medical-cannabis/ . live .
  69. News: Bigica . Alicia . FDA Approves Cannabidiol for Tuberous Sclerosis Complex . 27 March 2023 . Aug 3, 2020 . 27 March 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230327214333/https://www.neurologylive.com/view/fda-approves-cannabidiol-for-tuberous-sclerosis-complex . live .
  70. News: McLennan . William . 31 October 2020 . NHS 'refuses' medical cannabis for children with epilepsy . BBC News . 1 November 2020 . 1 November 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201101003547/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-kent-54749353 . live .
  71. News: People can apply for medical cannabis. Bell. Jonathan. 25 November 2016. The Royal Gazette. 27 October 2018. 27 October 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181027232029/http://www.royalgazette.com/news/article/20161125/people-can-apply-for-medical-cannabis. live.
  72. News: Weeks: we need to talk about cannabis. Bell. Jonathan. 25 July 2018. The Royal Gazette. 27 October 2018. 1 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181101101737/http://www.royalgazette.com/politics/article/20180725/weeks-we-need-to-talk-about-cannabis. live.
  73. Web site: Governor approves medical cannabis oil. Fuller. Brent. 16 November 2016. Cayman Compass. 23 November 2016. 23 November 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161123133354/https://www.caymancompass.com/2016/11/20/governor-approves-medical-cannabis-oil/. live.
  74. Web site: Matthew Feeney . Cannabis Clubs Are Flourishing in the UK - Hit & Run . . 18 November 2013 . 9 November 2016 . 9 November 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161109152807/http://reason.com/blog/2013/11/18/cannabis-clubs-are-flourishing-in-the-uk . live .
  75. Web site: Cannabis clubs blossoming in the UK. Whitehead. Sarah. 17 November 2013. The Guardian. 9 November 2016. 9 November 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161109224228/https://www.theguardian.com/society/shortcuts/2013/nov/17/cannabis-clubs-blossoming-uk. live.
  76. Web site: Social clubs defy anti-cannabis laws - WEST . West-info.eu . 9 November 2016 . 9 November 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161109153226/http://www.west-info.eu/social-clubs-defy-anti-cannabis-laws/ . live .
  77. Web site: Cannabis Social Club. ENCOD. https://web.archive.org/web/20130825003232/https://www.encod.org/info/-CANNABIS-SOCIAL-CLUBS-.html. 25 August 2013. dead. 9 November 2016.
  78. Web site: Normalise It . 2024-04-08 . Medical Cannabis Patients Association . en-GB.
  79. News: Tory contender calls for more liberal drug laws. Woolf. Marie. 7 September 2005. The Independent. 16 May 2010. 17 May 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100517063553/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tory-contender-calls-for-more-liberal-drug-laws-505824.html. live.
  80. Web site: Home Office error reveals how FOI request handled. Rosenbaum. Martin. 25 June 2010. BBC blogs. 27 June 2010. 28 June 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100628061545/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/opensecrets/2010/06/home_office_error_reveals_how_foi_request_handled.html. live.
  81. News: Press Association . 25 June 2010 . Boris Johnson announces anti-drug plans — as cocaine use reported in U.K. Parliament' . 6 December 2021 . 6 December 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211206180450/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/12/06/british-parliament-cocaine-toilets/ . live .
  82. News: Critical public interest. Easton. Mark. 25 June 2010. BBC News. 27 June 2010. 28 June 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100628053846/http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/thereporters/markeaston/2010/06/foi_home_office.html. live.
  83. News: Dame Judi Dench and Sting head drug rethink call. 2 June 2011. BBC News. 20 July 2018. 16 June 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180616074848/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-13625241. live.
  84. News: Tory contender calls for more liberal drug laws. Woolf. Marie. 7 September 2005. The Independent. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001141541/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/tory-contender-calls-for-more-liberal-drug-laws-6143525.html. 1 October 2015. dead.
  85. News: MPs forced to debate legalisation of cannabis after e-petition reaches 100,000 signatures. Buchanan. Rose Troup. 25 July 2015. The Independent. 25 August 2017. 16 October 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171016070536/https://www.independent.co.uk/news-14-1/mps-forced-to-debate-legalisation-of-cannabis-after-e-petition-reaches-100000-signatures-10415624.html. live.
  86. News: Wright . Oliver . 8 March 2016 . Cannabis legalisation in UK 'would raise £1bn a year in taxes' . The Independent . 12 January 2022 . 12 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220112174921/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/cannabis-legalisation-marijuana-uk-ps1bn-a-year-in-taxes-a6918161.html . live .
  87. News: 9 December 2020 . Could UK's Covid crisis lead to cannabis legalisation? . ITV News . 12 January 2022 . 12 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220112183726/https://www.itv.com/news/2020-12-09/could-uks-covid-crisis-lead-to-cannabis-legalisation . live .
  88. News: Doward . Jamie . 2 June 2018 . Legalising cannabis 'could earn Treasury £3.5bn' . The Guardian . 12 January 2022 . 12 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220112183725/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jun/02/legalise-cannabis-treasury-3bn-drugs . live .
  89. Web site: Let's Legalise Cannabis . Liberal Democrats . 12 January 2022 . 12 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220112183751/https://www.libdems.org.uk/cannabis . live .
  90. News: Cannabis Laws . Politics.co.uk . 12 January 2022 . 12 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220112183726/https://www.politics.co.uk/reference/cannabis/ . live .
  91. Web site: Liberal Democrats call for a legalised cannabis market . 12 March 2016 . Liberal Democrats . 10 May 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160315142825/http://www.libdems.org.uk/liberal_democrats_call_for_a_legalised_cannabis_market . 15 March 2016.
  92. Web site: A regulated cannabis market for the UK . 8 March 2016 . Liberal Democrats . 10 May 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160311101709/http://www.libdems.org.uk/a_regulated_cannabis_market_for_the_uk . 11 March 2016.
  93. News: Liberal Democrats become first major party to back cannabis legalisation. Leftly. Mark. 12 March 2016. The Independent. 10 May 2017. 28 August 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190828154939/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/cannabis-marijuana-legalisation-liberal-democrats-drug-policy-a6927936.html. live.
  94. Web site: Estimating the Size and Potential of the UK Cannabis Market. June 2018. Institute of Economic Affairs. 5 December 2018. 17 July 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180717104605/https://iea.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/DP90_Legalising-cannabis_web-1.pdf. live.
  95. Web site: Legalisation of cannabis 'only solution to crime and addiction problems' . Davies . Caroline . 21 November 2016 . The Guardian . 12 January 2022 . 18 January 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220118024028/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/nov/21/uk-should-legalise-cannabis-adam-smith-institute-report . live .
  96. News: Legalising cannabis could be 'win-win-win' for UK, says thinktank. Kollewe. Julia. 28 June 2018. The Guardian. 5 December 2018. 6 December 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181206053256/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jun/29/legalise-cannabis-in-uk-institute-for-economic-affairs. live.
  97. News: Lee . John . 26 December 2021 . Belfast mayor Kate Nicholl in legalise cannabis call . Belfast Telegraph . 1 February 2024.
  98. Web site: Report Launch: Recreational Europe . April 2022 . Hanway Associates . 21 May 2022 . 16 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220516222030/https://hanwayassociates.com/news-opinion/recreational-europe-report-launch . live .
  99. News: Sabaghi . Dario . 22 April 2022 . More Than Half Of Europeans Support Cannabis Legalization . Forbes . 21 May 2022 . 21 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220521092450/https://www.forbes.com/sites/dariosabaghi/2022/04/22/more-than-half-of-europeans-support-cannabis-legalization/?sh=7b90d4c3493c . live .
  100. News: Krishna . Rithika . 7 April 2022 . More than half of Europeans support cannabis legalization -report . Reuters . 21 May 2022 . 21 May 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220521092450/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/more-than-half-europeans-support-cannabis-legalization-report-2022-04-07/ . live .

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Cannabis in the United Kingdom".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.