Bunmei-kaika refers to the phenomenon of Westernization in Japan during the Meiji era (1868–1912), which led to major changes in institutions and customs. The term is generally used for the period in the early Meiji era when customs and manners changed drastically from the feudal society of the past. Under the influence of scholars such as Fukuzawa Yukichi, it was thought that adopting Western culture would allow Japan to overcome the perceived weaknesses of its traditional culture.[1]
The term was used as a translation of "civilization" in Fukuzawa Yukichi's book . Originally, only was translated as "civilization" in Japan. However, the word is now also widely used to mean "civilization". originally meant "the action of making someone understand reason or principle and guiding them to good direction" in Buddhism. In the Edo period though, the Tokugawa family used the verb to refer to the development of a nation, so, which shares the kanji, gained a meaning like "development". Both and are .[2]
See also: Meiji Restoration.
The main impetus for the was the Meiji Restoration, a series of huge changes that occurred in Japan in the latter half of the 19th century.
From 1639 to 1854, Japan was closed to other countries under a policy called . The Tokugawa shogunate implemented foreign policies such as banning the voyage to Christian countries, banning the arrival of Spanish and Portuguese into Japan, and cutting relations with Southeast Asia. Japan was effectively isolated from other countries.
In 1854, Commodore Perry visited Uraga to ask for the opening of the country to the world, which resulted in the Treaty of Peace and Amity between the United States and Japan. This ended the policy of . As a result, people in Japan became more aware of the need to protect their country, and the idea of was born.
At the same time, the idea of overthrowing the Shogunate spread. Many people demanded Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the Shogun at the time, to return all powers to the Emperor.[3] In an event called the, the Tokugawa Shogunate agreed to give up its powers. After this, a new government was officially established.
In 1868, Tokugawa forces and the new Meiji government's forces, composed of the Satsuma and Chōshū clans, fought in the Boshin War. The Meiji forces defeated the Tokugawa forces, and the new government took power in Japan. The government moved the capital from Kyoto to Tokyo and began to build a centralized state around the Emperor. The Meiji government abolished the system. Emperor Meiji also announced the Charter Oath. In this way, the Meiji government steadily came to hold greater political power. The feudal system in Japan collapsed at this time. The new government introduced new systems following the example of foreign countries, especially Germany, and established a new governance system.[4]
A famous saying that symbolizes this era is: "If you tap a head with hair cropped short, you will hear the sound of civilization." This saying shows that Western hairstyles were a symbol of civilization.
The new Meiji government promoted a series of policies encouraging new industries, increasing wealth and military power, and following Europe, which included the introduction of Western architecture (Giyōfū architecture), haircutting, Western clothing, and Western food. However, it has also been pointed out that this Westernization was limited to urban areas and a few intellectuals. In some rural areas, lights were until the Shōwa period. The introduction of a modern mail system and technologies using electricity, such as the telegraph, was very gradual. The traditions and customs of the late Edo period continued for a long time.
Since the opening of Japan to the outside world, Japanese customs were reported from a curious perspective by foreigners who visited Japan. In order for the new Japan to not be misunderstood, the Meiji government called Japan's indigenous customs and beliefs "bad" and "old" and took policies to "enlighten" the "lost mongrel" people. Local governments took the initiative to eliminate folk customs, and many of these customs were reduced or discontinued due to the effects of . For example, along with the abandonment of Buddhism, the Ministry of Education disallowed Yamabushi, Shamanism, and other forms of blessing prayer in 1873. In addition, tattoos and Iomante were banned, affecting Ainu culture and Ryukyuan culture. In 1872, the Tokyo Prefecture issued an ordinance which established detailed regulations to discourage a number of behaviors that the government regarded as contrary to public hygiene, safety, order, and decency.
In this context, Western military technology was actively introduced as part of the new military policy, and even the rations served in the military were Westernized in order to increase the strength and stamina of the soldiers. However, the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces, which had just been established at that time, were a group of second and third generation soldiers from rural areas, and some of them, who had been brought up on cooked rice and Japanese food, showed aversion to the foreign Western cuisine. For this reason, the Navy and other naval forces devised ways to combine rice and curry, and developed eclectic dishes such as nikujaga with soy sauce. The Japanese curry rice later became Yokosuka navy curry. Dishes like nikujaga spread to areas around military ports, and by the time of the Showa era, it was widely accepted as a common family dish.
Japanese people were fascinated by Western culture at this time. However, different classes of people had different attitudes toward . For peasants who were of relatively low rank, taxes became a heavy burden, and anti-policy riots called occurred.[5]
Westernization changed the way people thought. In Japan, where society was strongly divided, led to the abolition of the class system and the spread of the idea that all people were equal. People called and, who were not treated as human beings, came to be recognized as citizens. Although this did not makes the citizens perfectly equal, the idea that people should have democratic government was born.[6]
Many things from the West came into Japan. Imported items included Western umbrellas, shampoo, Western clothing, Western-style buildings, gas lamps, and even schools, newspapers, magazines, and semi-Western-style buildings. These were called .
Buildings were built in a semi-Western style, using bricks for walls. A lot of buildings were designed by foreign architects. The British architect Josiah Conder designed the Rokumeikan, which became a key diplomatic building. Gradually, the number of Japanese architects increased, and an architect named Tatsuno Kingo designed a number of Western-style buildings. Tokyo Station is one such example.[9]
Other examples of Western-style architecture are the and Ginza Bricktown.
There were major changes in Japanese food culture, such as eating sukiyaki as described in Kanagaki Robun's . Before, there was no culture of eating non-seafood meat in Japan because of a Buddhist belief that the meat of animals was impure. However, in order to promote eating meat, meat was actively used in the Emperor's meals from 1871. When this was reported in newspapers or magazines, meat-eating was encouraged throughout the country.
Imports of coffee and butter also started around this time, but these foods did not become very popular in Japan. In 1872, Japanese started brewing and selling beer in Osaka for the first time. In 1877, it was shipped to Tokyo, and at one time nearly 100 beer companies were established.[10] Other changes included drinking milk and the invention of anpan.
The government tried to solve a currency shortage by using coins and bills of the former period. Later, the gold standard system was introduced, and the was enacted in 1871 so that gold could be used as an international currency. In addition, the government, which wanted to unify the monetary system following the example of the United States, enacted the . In 1879, as many as 153 national banks were established across the country and were granted the right to issue paper money under certain conditions.[12]
See main article: Foreign government advisors in Meiji Japan.
By the turn of the century, the bunmei-kaika, as both a goal and a process, had prompted criticism from those within Japanese society who considered the movement not to have brought "civilization and enlightenment" but "civilization disease" (bunmei-byō).[13] Critics such as Miyake Setsurei and his circle derided the movement's negative effects on Japanese culture, namely decadence, materialism, radicalism, the commercialization of values and the decline of cooperation.[14] The introduction of German economic thought in the 1890s influenced the way some Japanese perceived industrialization and its problems, including class conflict, labor strife, and the destruction of the peasant village.[15]