List of national border changes (1914–present) explained
Since World War I, there have been many changes in borders between nations, detailed below. For information on border changes from the end of the Napoleonic Wars to 1914, see the list of national border changes (1815–1914). Cases are only listed where there have been changes in borders, not necessarily including changes in ownership of a territory. For instance, many European colonies in Africa became independent without any adjustment to their borders, although some did have many changes. Also mentioned are some de facto changes, not recognized by the international community, such as Crimea, and South Ossetia.
Over 40% of the world’s borders today were drawn as a result of British and French imperialism. The British and French drew the modern borders of the Middle East, the borders of Africa, in Asia after the independence of the British Raj and French Indochina and the borders of Europe after World War I as victors, as a result of the Paris treaties. [1] [2] [3] As a result of New Imperialism, the European countries with the most colonies throughout history were: the United Kingdom (130), France (90), Portugal (52), Spain (44), the Netherlands (29), Germany (20), Russia (17), Denmark (9), Sweden (8), Italy (7), Norway (6), and Belgium (3).[4]
Africa
- 1919–1922 — The Treaty of Versailles divides Germany's African colonies into mandates of the victors (which largely become new colonies of the victors). Most of Cameroon becomes a French mandate with a small portion taken by the British and some territory incorporated into France's previously existing colonies; Togo is mostly taken by the British, though the French gain a slim portion; German East Africa was separated between Belgium (Rwanda and Burundi), Portugal (the Kionga Triangle) and the United Kingdom (Tanganyika, later merging with Zanzibar to form Tanzania); and German South-West Africa (Namibia) becomes a mandate of South Africa. In September, France settles its African colonial borders with Italian Libya. On September 8, following the signing of the Anglo-French Convention of September 8, 1919, the borders of Italian Libya and French Chad are settled to the present-day boundaries.[5] A few days later, the borders of western and southwestern Libya are extended to their current boundaries after French concessions with the Franco-Italian Arrangement of 12 September 1919.[6]
- — The Tangier International Zone is established after France and Spain end their control over parts of the city.
- — The UK cedes a portion of Jubaland to Italy (Trans-Juba, it. Oltregiuba) as a reward for the Italians having joined the Allies in World War I.
- — The eastern borders of Libya and British Egypt are changed to their present boundaries, with the exception of parts of present-day southern Libya still remaining part of British Sudan.[5]
- — France moves the control of the area of the present day Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture from the territory of Niger in French West Africa to Chad in French Equatorial Africa.[7]
- — The borders of Libya are changed to their present-day boundaries after the Italo-British-Egyptian Agreement, British Sudan cedes northern territory to Libya.[5]
- — The Franco-Italian Agreement cedes the Aouzou Strip from French Chad to Italian Libya.
- — After the success of Italy during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, Ethiopia is annexed by Italy. Ethiopia joins with Eritrea and Italian Somaliland to form Italian East Africa. The international community does not accept Italy's occupation of Ethiopia and maintains relations with exiled Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie.
- 1940 – 1943 — With the outbreak of World War II, war arrives in Africa in 1940, with Italy joining the war, initially British forces in British Somaliland are defeated by the Italians coming from Italian East Africa and the territory is taken. However, by 1941, the British retake lost territory and take over Italian East Africa. In North Africa, after a period of retreat into Libya, Italian forces receive vital aid from the German army and the Germans move deep into Egypt by 1942, before beginning to lose ground. By 1943, The German and Italian forces retreat from Libya and capture Tunisia from France prior to fleeing to Sicily.
- — The Prince Edward Islands are annexed by the Union of South Africa.
- — The Kingdom of Libya becomes independent.
- — British-administered Eritrea is joined into a federation with Ethiopia. [8]
- — Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland established from the British self-governing colony of Southern Rhodesia and the British protectorates of Northern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland.
- — French Morocco, the International Zone of Tangier, and most of Spanish Morocco join to become the independent nation of Morocco;
- — The United Kingdom annexes British Togoland and the Northern Territories protectorate as part of Her Majesty's dominions in Ghana, a new independent country within the British Commonwealth.
- — Tunisia gains independence.
- — French West Africa splits into Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin)
- — Belgian Congo is granted independence as the Republic of the Congo. In 1964 it changes its name to the Democratic Republic of the Congo to differentiate itself from Congo-Brazzaville.
- — State of Somaliland (formerly British Somaliland) joins with Italian Somaliland to form Somalia. French Equatorial Africa's interim successor, the Union of Central African Republics dissolves in August with independence of Chad (August 11), Oubangui-Chari (now Central African Republic) (August 13), Congo-Brazzaville (now the Republic of the Congo) (August 15), and Gabon (August 17).
- — the northern two-thirds of British Cameroons joins Nigeria; October 1 — the southern third of British Cameroons joins with the Republic of Cameroon to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon. This year also the tiny Portuguese outpost of São João Baptista de Ajudá was annexed by Dahomey (now Benin)
- — The Belgian colony of Ruanda-Urundi separated into Rwanda and Burundi.
- — The People's Democratic Republic of Algeria is formally proclaimed.
- — Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland dissolved; over the next two years Nyasaland becomes independent Malawi, Northern Rhodesia wins independence as Zambia, and Southern Rhodesia (or simply Rhodesia) unilaterally declares independence.
- — Tanganyika unites with the island of Zanzibar to form Tanzania.
- — The break-away state of Biafra is formed from southern Nigeria. Officially Biafra receives de jure acknowledgement of existence by only a few nations, but has the de facto support of France, Israel, Portugal, and South Africa which provide arms to the state in its war of independence against Nigeria.
- — Spain returns Ifni to Morocco.
- — Biafra is occupied and annexed by Nigeria.
- — The Portuguese Overseas Province of Guinea declares its independence as the Republic of Guinea-Bissau. Recognition is granted the next year on 10 September 1974.
- — The Portuguese Province of Mozambique gains independence as the People's Republic of Mozambique.
- — The Portuguese Overseas Province of Cape Verde gains independence as the Republic of Cape Verde.
- — The French State of the Comoros gains independence as the State of Comoros.
- — The Portuguese Overseas Province of São Tomé and Príncipe gains independence as the Democratic Republic ofSão Tomé and Príncipe.
- — The Portuguese State of Angola gains independence as the People's Republic of Angola.
- — Spanish Sahara divided de facto between Morocco and Mauritania (although Spain's formal mandate did not end until February 26, 1976). Western Sahara is de jure a non-self governing territory according to the UN. No country recognises this until 2020, when the United States recognises Morocco's annexation.
- — The British Crown Colony of the Seychelles gains independence as the Republic of Seychelles.
- — The French Territory of the Afars and the Issas gains independence as the Republic of Djibouti
- — South African Government reimposed direct rule on Walvis Bay.
- — Mauritania withdraws from southern Western Sahara, which is taken over by Morocco
- — Namibia gets independence from occupying South Africa.
- — Somaliland declares independence from Somalia but is not recognized by any other country.
- — Eritrea breaks off from Ethiopia.
- — Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands are transferred by South Africa to Namibia.
- — Bakassi transferred to Cameroon by Nigeria
- — South Sudan formally obtains independence from the Republic of Sudan.
- — Puntland announces its temporary independence from Somalia until constitutional disputes and internal issues are to be resolved. It has no other formal recognition.
Asia
- — The German Concession in Shandong is formally transferred to Japan as part of the Treaty of Versailles. It had been under de facto Japanese control since the 1914 Siege of Tsingtao.[9]
- — Xu Shuzheng, Chinese warlord of the Republic of China, invades Outer Mongolia, repelling the White Army and reintegrating Mongolia into China.
- — The White Army defeat the Chinese Forces, ending the Occupation of Mongolia by the Beiyang government and re-establishing the Bogd Khanate.
- — The Tuvan People's Republic is proclaimed by revolutionaries with support from the Bolsheviks.[10]
- — Japan agrees to transfer it's lease in Shandong to China during the Washington Naval Conference, resolving the Shandong Problem.[11]
- — The Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone is created.
- — The Mongolian People's Republic is established in the first constitution following the defeat of White Forces in the region and the end of the Russian Civil War. [12]
- December — The Sultanate of Nejd annexes the Kingdom of Hejaz and subsequently decrees the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd in 1926.
- — The Treaty of Ankara is signed, recognising the Iraq-Turkey border with some minor modifications and solving the Mosul question.
- — The ICJ awards the Island of Palmas from the Philippines to the Dutch East Indies.
- — The Soviet Union seizes the Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island from the Republic of China.
- — The Empire of Japan declares Manchukuo independent of China
- — The Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd annexes the Idrisid Emirate of Asir and subsequently establishes the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.
- — Japan declares Mengjiang independent of China.
- — The British split Burma and Aden off from the rest of the Raj
- — Hatay State, a city-state, is formed when it separates from French-held Syria.
- — Turkey annexes Hatay.
- World War II — In the early stages of World War II in the Pacific, Japan made steady gains against the Allies. In 1940, with the collapse of France in Europe, the new Vichy regime allows Japan to annex French Indochina. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japan proceeds to occupy Wake Island, the Philippines, British Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, northern New Guinea and a number of pacific islands. Also Japan begins attacks against British-held Burma and India, and creates a puppet regime in Burma. From 1943 to its defeat, Japan steadily loses territory in the Pacific to the Allies and in 1945, Japan surrenders, abolishing its remaining puppet regimes in Manchukuo and Mengjiang, and abandoning its hold on Korea.
- — Tuvan People's Republic becomes a part of the Soviet Union.
- — Kwantung Leased Territory is dissolved and returned to the Republic of China.
- — The Republic of China have Taiwan and Penghu retroceded.
- — Following the war, the Soviet Union annexes the Southern Sakhalin and Kuril Islands from Japan according to the Yalta Conference, and Korea is divided into the two countries, South Korea and North Korea.
- — Straits Settlements, Unfederated Malay States and Federated Malay States join to form the Malayan Union. (Although these could have been considered remaining part of British Malaya) Jordan becomes independent after separating from the British Mandate of Palestine. The United Kingdom hands over the administration of the Turtle Islands to the Philippines.
- , August — The Partition of India as India and Pakistan are given independence from Britain
- — The State of Israel is created after the 1947 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181 called for the partition of the British-ruled Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. The resolution is accepted by the Jews in Palestine, but rejected by the Arabs in Palestine and the Arab states.
- — After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 over Kashmir, a Line of Control is created in Kashmir, creating Indian and Pakistani controlled zones.
- — The Republic of China loses control of most of mainland China (except for Kinmen and Matsu of Fukien/Fujian province, Tibet, Hainan) to the newly formed People's Republic of China in the Chinese Civil War
- — The Arab–Israeli War ends in an armistice, with Israel gaining 60% of the Palestinian state proposed by the 1947 partition plan, Egypt gaining the Gaza Strip and Jordan gaining the West Bank.
- — Chandannagar is taken over by India from French control.
- — Tibet is annexed by the People's Republic of China.
- — Following the Korean War, the boundary between North Korea and South Korea is the Military Demarcation Line, which roughly follows the previous 38th parallel
- — Bands of Indian irregulars took over the Portuguese enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli. On June 13, the port of Mahé breaks away from French rule and joins India. French Indochina dissolves, Vietnam is divided into two countries, South Vietnam and North Vietnam, and the nations of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam become independent states.
- — The Soviet Union hands over Dalian port to the People's Republic of China.
- — Cyprus declares its independence from the United Kingdom; the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia are established on the island by the United Kingdom under the latter's control.
- — India takes over the Portuguese colony of Goa, Daman and Diu, which becomes a single Union Territory of India. In 1987, Goa is elevated to full statehood, with Daman and Diu remaining a Union Territory.
- — India officially absorbs the French enclaves of Pondicherry.
- — The Federation of South Arabia is created.
- — The Protectorate of South Arabia is created.
- — Pakistan cedes claimed areas of Kashmir to the People's Republic of China.
- — Singapore, British North Borneo (renamed Sabah), Sarawak and Malaya join to form Malaysia
- — Singapore withdraws from Malaysia
- — Jordan and Saudi Arabia concluded a bilateral agreement that realigned and defined the boundary.
- — The Federation of South Arabia and the Protectorate of South Arabia join to form South Yemen.
- — Following the Six-Day War, Israel gains the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank from Jordan and Golan Heights from Syria.
- — Saudi Arabian–Kuwaiti neutral zone partitioned between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia
- — The United Nations recognizes the People's Republic of China as the sole legitimate government of "China" instead of the Republic of China.
- — Bangladesh becomes independent.
- — After an attempted Greek Cypriot coup sponsored by the Greek military junta of that period, Turkey invades and occupies one-third of Cyprus.
- — Sikkim becomes a part of India.
- — South Vietnam and North Vietnam were officially unified as Vietnam
- — After being relinquished by Portugal in 1974, and invaded by Indonesia in 1975, East Timor is annexed by Indonesia
- — Pursuant to the Camp David Accords, Israel completes the withdrawal from the Sinai Peninsula.
- — The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is declared but is not recognised by any country except Turkey.
- — The Iraq–Jordan border is revised, creating the border of 6 straight lines.
- — North Yemen unites with South Yemen.
- — Kuwait annexed by Iraq
- — Kuwait is liberated from Iraq; Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone is officially recognized as being disbanded, it had been de facto disbanded since 1981.
- — Abkhazia and South Ossetia declare their independence, but remain internationally recognised territories of Georgia.
- — Under the Oslo Agreements, Israel transferred parts of the West Bank (Areas "A" and "B") and the majority of the Gaza Strip to the rule of the Palestinian National Authority.
- — Hong Kong transferred to China by the UK as a special administrative region.
- — Macau transferred to China by Portugal as a special administrative region.
- — East Timor gains independence 3 years after the end of its occupation by Indonesia.
- — Russia ceded Tarabarov Island and the eastern part of Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island to China as part of a permanent border demarcation.
- — Israel dismantles its settlements in the Gush Katif region of the Gaza Strip, and the remainder of the Gaza Strip, most of which had already been transferred to Palestinian rule in 1994, becomes administered by the Palestinian Authority, until 2007 when the territory is seized by the military wing of Hamas in a violent coup d'état.
- — Israel dismantles its settlements in the Northern Samaria region of the West Bank.
- — After Russian intervention in Georgia, both Abkhazia and South Ossetia gain territories, including Kodori Valley, from internationally recognised territories of Georgia.
- — The India–Bangladesh border is removed of most of its enclaves and exclaves.
- — Egypt cedes Sanafir Island and Tiran Island to Saudi Arabia as part of a maritime demarcation agreement.
- — While Nagorno-Karabakh remained an internationally recognised territory of Azerbaijan, the four UN Security Council resolutions, adopted in 1993 and demanding immediate withdrawal of the Armenian occupying forces from all occupied regions of Azerbaijan, remained unfulfilled until 2020. In 2020, a new war erupted in the region, which saw Azerbaijan retake control of most of southern Karabakh (Fuzuli, Jabrayil, Zangilan, Qubadli, Hadrut districts) and parts of north-eastern Karabakh (Talish, Madagiz). A trilateral ceasefire agreement signed on 10 November 2020, ended the war and forced Armenia to return control of all of the remaining territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh.
- , November — The Qatar-Saudi border was demarcated, giving Qatar access to the entirety of Khor Al Adaid.[13]
- — As part of the 2023 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement, the Republic of Artsakh was dissolved and reintegrated into Azerbaijan.
Europe
- — The Grand Duchy of Finland declares its full independence from the collapsing Russian Empire.
- — Ukraine,[14] Belarus, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan declare their independence from the Russian Empire. The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (later known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) is formed.
- 1919–20 — After the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the fates of the successor states are decided by the Treaty of Saint-Germain signed September 10, 1919, and by the Treaty of Trianon signed June 4, 1920, respectively. This results in Austria and Hungary with reduced borders, while Czechoslovakia is formed from their former territories. Other territories of the former monarchy are additionally awarded to Italy, Poland, Romania and the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In 1919, Germany suffered substantial territorial losses in the Treaty of Versailles. Belgium receives Neutral Moresnet and three German cantons as compensation for extensive damage during World War I. These three cantons still form the German-speaking community of Belgium: Eupen, Malmedy and Sankt Vith. Denmark receives Northern Schleswig from Germany (with local plebiscites concluding in 1920). Most of the Prussian provinces of Posen and of West Prussia go to Poland. The east part of Upper Silesia and the area of Soldau in East Prussia are annexed to Poland as well. Danzig and Saarland fall under the control of the League of Nations. The Memel territory comes under a temporary French administration.
- — Greece is promised most of eastern Thrace as well as Ionia with the city of İzmir (Smyrna) in the Treaty of Sèvres. Soviet Russia invades and occupies Azerbaijan. Soviet Russia recognizes the independence of Georgia. Soviet Russia invades and occupies Armenia. The Free State of Fiume is established as a result of an Italo–Yugoslav border dispute.
- — As a result of winning a war against Soviet Russia, Poland gains territories east of the Curzon Line, inhabited essentially by Lithuanians, Belarusians, Poles, and Ukrainians.
- — Soviet Russia invades and occupies Georgia. The Treaty of Kars rearranges the borders in the South Caucasus, considerable territories of Georgia and Armenia are ceded to Turkey.
- — The Irish Free State and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland are formed from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The United Kingdom maintains Treaty Ports at Berehaven, Cobh, and Lough Swilly.
- — The Soviet Union is officially formed under the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR.
- — The Treaty of Sèvres is superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne under which Greece loses its earlier territorial gains and the borders of modern Turkey are established. Western Thrace is ceded by Bulgaria to Greece, a decision earlier agreed upon in the 1919 Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine. On the Baltic sea, Lithuania annexes the Memel territory without plebiscite. Italian military forces take control of the Greek island of Corfu.
- — The Treaty of Rome comes into effect, ending the existence of the Free State of Fiume and the Italo–Yugoslav border dispute. The treaty assigns Fiume (Rijeka) to Italy and Sušak to Yugoslavia, with joint port administration. On March 16, Italy formally annexes Fiume.
- — Albania cedes territory to the Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs.
- — The Vatican City becomes independent after the signing of the Lateran Treaty with Italy.[15]
- — Following the war, the borders of Germany are moved west to the Oder-Neisse line, while the approximate boundary of the Curzon Line is used as the eastern border of Poland. In addition to incorporating the Kresy territories, the Soviet Union also annexed the Baltic states, Carpathian Ruthenia from Czechoslovakia, and Bessarabia, the Hertsa region, and Northern Bukovina from Romania. From Germany, the Soviet Union acquired the northeastern third of the former East Prussian exclave with the Klaipeda/Memel region becoming part of the Lithuanian SSR and the bulk of the territory forming the Kaliningrad Oblast of the Russian SFSR. Additionally, Finland ceded major portions of Karelia and Salla to the Soviet Union as well as islands in the Gulf of Finland, the whole Petsamo, and a lease to use Porkkala as a Soviet naval base for 50 years.
- — Saarland is separated from (occupied) Germany by France and became a French protectorate on February 16 of that year but was not recognized by the Allied Control Council ruling entire Germany (and Austria) so it was a disputed territory in the international law.
- — In the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947, Italy cedes the Dodecanese to Greece; La Brigue and Tende to France; and Goriška, Inner Carniola, most of Istria, Zadar, its Dalmatian and Kvarner islands (such as Lastovo and Cres), and Rijeka (Fiume) to the newly established Federal Peoples' Republic of Yugoslavia. Trieste becomes the capital city of the Free Territory of Trieste established as an independent sovereign state at the coming into force of the treaty (September 15).[18]
- — Following the signing of the Moscow Protocol of 1948, the Soviet Union formally annexes some Danubian islands and the Snake Island in the Black Sea from Romania.
- — The Netherlands annexes the villages Elten, Tüddern and some smaller localities from Germany.
- — The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) is established.
- — Switzerland and Liechtenstein exchange territories in the area of Rhine-Würznerhorn.[19]
- — The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) is established.
- — Polish and Soviet border exchange along the border of the Ukrainian SSR.
- — The Free Territory of Trieste is dissolved and divided between Yugoslavia and Italy.
- — Italy and Switzerland modify the border in the zone of Lago di Lei[20]
- — The Austrian State Treaty comes into force, establishing an independent Austrian state from the four occupation zones of the Allied powers.
- — The Soviet Union returns Porkkala to Finland.
- — The Saar Protectorate is incorporated into West Germany as a state after the 1955 referendum.
- — An adjustment to the Meuse river between The Netherlands and Belgium results in three small packages of land being exchanged between the two countries.[21]
- — The 1949 Dutch acquisitions of West German territory are almost completely reverted; the Duivelsberg remains permanently with the Netherlands.
- — Malta becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- — The United Kingdom formally annexes Rockall (by the Island of Rockall Act 1972, declaring it to be part of Scotland). Ireland does not recognise the UK's territorial claim to Rockall.
- — France and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Canterbury, defining a land frontier between the two countries. This border becomes physical with the breakthrough of the Channel Tunnel on 1 December 1990.
- — East Germany unites with West Germany on October 3. Transnistria declares independence from the Moldavian SSR but is not recognised by any country.
- — Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania restore their independence from Soviet occupation. With the complete dissolution of the Soviet Union, it is split up into a further 12 independent states, including the European states of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. The independence of all the former Soviet republics is recognised by December 26 (except the Baltic states, which the Soviet Union recognized on September 6). Slovenia (June 25) including the former "zone B" of the Free Territory of Trieste, Croatia (June 25), and the Republic of Macedonia (September 8) all declare their independence from Yugoslavia. Croatia and Slovenia are formally recognized on January 15, 1992 and Macedonia in April 1993.
- — Bosnia and Herzegovina declares independence from Yugoslavia on March 1 and is formally recognised on April 6. A civil war breaks out, and as the result of the war, two largely autonomous entities are formed: Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska. The remaining of Yugoslavia becomes the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (renamed to Serbia and Montenegro in 2003).
- — Czechoslovakia is dissolved into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in the "Velvet Divorce".
- — Andorra and France exchange land to allow the Andorran Envalira Tunnel to connect to the French RN22.
- — Lithuania's share of Lake Vištytis increases to about 383 ha (about 22% from 2.2%) from a new border treaty with Russia.[22]
- — The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro is dissolved following a referendum; Montenegro and Serbia each become independent states.
- — Kosovo unilaterally declares independence from Serbia. The declaration is strongly opposed by Serbia and recognised by just over half (101 out of 193) of UN member states.
- — Russia annexes Crimea from Ukraine, following an internationally unrecognized plebiscite.
- — Belgium and the Netherlands swap land near Lanaye and Oost-Maarland over the discovery of a headless body several years prior, which the Belgian authorities could not access without crossing Dutch territory. The border has been straightened out and now runs down the centre of the Meuse River.[21] The change took effect on 1 January 2018.
North America
Oceania
South America
World maps showing borders
(Click to enlarge)
See also
Notes and References
- Book: Manning, Patrick . Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades . Cambridge University Press . London . 1990.
- Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. London: Cambridge University Press.
- Martin Klein, "Slave Descent and Social Status in Sahara and Sudan", in Reconfiguring Slavery: West African Trajectories, ed. Benedetta Rossi (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2009), 29.
- Web site: A map of Europe based on how many colonies each country had. 2023-09-26 . 2023-09-26.
- Web site: International Boundary Study No. 10: Libya–Sudan Boundary . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070926145326/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS010.pdf . 2007-09-26., United States Department of State, October 16, 1961
- Web site: International Boundary Study No. 1: Algeria–Libya banaba . 2007-09-09 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070926145324/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS001.pdf . 2007-09-26 . dead., United States Department of State, April 28, 1961
- Web site: International Boundary Study No. 3 (Revised): Chad–Libya Boundary . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060916034849/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS003.pdf . 2006-09-16., United States Department of State, December 15, 1978
- Web site: UN Resolution 390 A (V) passed to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia . zantana . 28 June 2024.
- Web site: Occupation during and after the War (China) . 2018-08-21. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
- Web site: RossTuva ТЫВА Tuva . hubert-herald.nl. 2024-06-28.
- Web site: China and Japan - Treaty for the settlement of outstanding questions relative to Shantung, signed at Washington February 4, 1922. www.worldlii.org. 2024-07-10.
- Encyclopedia: Constitutional Framework. Robert L.. Andrea Matles. Savada. 21600294. 175–178. Washington, D.C.. 2nd. Worden. Ristaino. 0-16-029462-2. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1991. Mongolia: a country study. Marcia R..
- News: 4 November 2021. Qatar completes border demarcation with Saudi Arabia. Doha News . 9 November 2021.
- Web site: Ukraine declares its independence | January 22, 1918 .
- Web site: The world’s smallest sovereign state was born on February 11, 1929, with the signing of the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy. 24 July 2024. Vatican City turns 91. Vatican News. 11 February 2020.
- Web site: Legal Status of Eastern Greenland. 24 July 2024. WorldCourts.
- Web site: Case concerning the Legal Status of the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland. 24 July 2024. WorldCourts.
- Web site: Treaty of Peace with Italy (volume 49, number 747, article 21) . United Nations . Treaties and International Agreements Registered or Filed and Recorded with the Secretariat of the United Nations . 1950.
- Web site: Vertrag zwischen der Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft und dem Fürstentum Liechtenstein über eine allgemeine Revision der Landesgrenze im Abschnitt Rhein–Würznerhorn. Fedlex. German.
- Web site: Convention entre la Confédération Suisse et la République Italienne concernant une modification de la frontière dans le Val di Lei. Fedlex. French.
- News: Belgium and the Netherlands Swap Land, and Remain Friends . Dan . Bilefsky . The New York Times . 28 November 2016 . 18 March 2019 . NYTimes.com.
- Web site: Lithuanian-Russian 2003 Border Treaty and Land Swap . Jan S. Krogh's Geosite . 16 October 2017.
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/3028825.stm Timeline: Papua New Guinea
