In Buddhism, the (Pali; variant spellings include and ;[1] Skt.:) are qualities conducive or related to awakening/understanding, i.e. the factors and wholesome qualities which are developed when the mind is trained .
In the Pali commentaries, the term is used to refer to seven sets of such qualities regularly attributed to the Buddha throughout the Pali Canon. Within these seven sets of -related qualities, there is listed a total of thirty-seven repetitious and interrelated qualities .
These seven sets of qualities are recognized by both Theravadan and Mahayanan Buddhists as complementary facets of the Buddhist path to .[2]
In the Pali Canon's Bhāvanānuyutta sutta ("Mental Development Discourse," AN 7.67), the Buddha is recorded as saying:
Elsewhere in the Canon,[3] and in numerous places in the āgamas of other early schools,[4] these seven sets of thirty-seven qualities conducive to Enlightenment are enumerated as:
See main article: Satipatthana.
See main article: Four Right Exertions.
See also: Vīrya.
See main article: Iddhipada.
See main article: Indriya.
See main article: Five Strengths.
See main article: Seven factors of awakening.
See main article: Noble Eightfold Path.
A sutta found in The Senior Collection of Gandhāran Buddhist texts ascribes forty one instead of thirty seven beneficial dharmas.[6] The Gandharan text includes which the Pali tradition does not.[6] Salomon notes this forty one numbered list appears in both a Chinese translation of the Dirghagama which current scholarship believes to be of the Dharmaguptaka school of Buddhism and a Chinese translation of the Dharmaguptaka vinaya.[6]
In the Pali Canon's Nettipakaraṇa (Netti 112) forty-three qualities connected with awakening are mentioned which, according to the commentaries, include the aforementioned thirty-seven plus the following six contemplations (also found in the suttas, e.g. Saṅgīti Sutta D iii 251)
The technical term,, explicitly referring to the seven sets of qualities identified above, is first encountered in the Pali commentaries;[7] nonetheless, the seven sets of are themselves first collated, enumerated, and referenced in the Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.[8]
In the Digha Nikāya's famed Maha-parinibbana Sutta (DN 16), which recounts the Buddha's last days, in the Buddha's last address to his assembly of followers he states:[9]
Now, O bhikkhus, I say to you that these teachings of which I have direct knowledge and which I have made known to you—these you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop, and frequently practice, that the life of purity may be established and may long endure, for the welfare and happiness of the multitude, out of compassion for the world, for the benefit, well being, and happiness of gods and men.And what, bhikkhus, are these teachings? They are the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four constituents of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, and the Noble Eightfold Path. These, bhikkhus, are the teachings of which I have direct knowledge, which I have made known to you, and which you should thoroughly learn, cultivate, develop, and frequently practice....In the Majjhima Nikāya's "Greater Discourse to Sakuludāyin" (MN 77),[10] when asked why his disciples venerated him, the Buddha identified five qualities he possessed: highest virtues ; highest knowledge and vision ; highest wisdom ; his explanation of the Four Noble Truths ; and, his identification of numerous ways to develop wholesome states.The Buddha's elaboration of the last item included the seven sets of thirty-seven which are enumerated individually in this discourse.[11]
In the Samyutta Nikaya, the fifth division's first seven chapters are each devoted to one of the . While there is a great deal of repetition among these chapters' discourses, these seven chapters include almost 900 discourses.[12]
In the Anguttara Nikaya's "Upajjhāyasuttaṃ" (AN 5.6.6), the Buddha recommends five things for a monk to overcome spiritual hindrances: control mental faculties; eat the right amount of food; maintain wakefulness; be aware of merit; and, develop the throughout the day.[13]
In the Khuddaka Nikāya, the are mentioned at Iti. 82,[14] Th. 900,[15] and Nett. 31, 112, 197, 237, 240 and 261.[16]
The are mentioned in several passages of the Abhidhamma, such as at Vbh. sections 571 and 584.[17]
In the Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghosa enumerates the seven sets of along with a relevant Sutta Pitaka discourse (Vism. XXII.33), describes each set (Vism. XXII.34-38), and describes their existence in the consciousness of an arahant (Vism. XXII.39-40). In addition, Buddhaghosa factors the 37 qualities in a manner so as to describe fourteen non-redundant qualities (Vism. XXII.40-43); thus, for instance, while nine qualities (zeal, consciousness, joy, tranquility, equanimity, intention, speech, action, livelihood) are mentioned only once in the full list of 37 qualities, the other five qualities are mentioned multiple times. Table 1 below identifies the five qualities spanning multiple sets.[18]
| 7 SETS OF QUALITIES | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4 Establishments of Mindfulness | 4 Right Exertions | 4 Bases of Power | 5 Faculties | 5 Powers | 7 Factors of Awakening | Noble Eightfold Path | |||||||||
| 5 Q U A L I T I E S | Faith | < | --satipaṭṭhāna--> | < | --padhāna--> | < | --iddhipāda--> | < | --indriya--> | < | --bala--> | < | --bojjhaṅga--> | < | --magga--> |
| Energy | < | --satipaṭṭhāna--> | 4 < | --padhna--> | < | --iddhipāda--> | < | --indriya--> | < | --bala--> | < | --bojjhaṅga--> | < | --magga--> | |
| Mindfulness | 4 < | --satipaṭṭhāna--> | < | --padhāna--> | < | --iddhipāda--> | < | --indriya--> | < | --bala--> | < | --bojjhaṅga--> | < | --magga--> | |
| Concentration | < | --satipaṭṭhāna--> | < | --padhāna--> | < | --iddhipāda--> | < | --indriya--> | < | --bala--> | < | --bojjhaṅga--> | < | --magga--> | |
| Wisdom | < | --satipaṭṭhāna--> | < | --padhāna--> | < | --iddhipāda--> | < | --indriya--> | < | --bala--> | < | --bojjhaṅga--> | < | --magga--> | |
| Table 1: Five qualities mentioned 28 times across seven sets of qualities conducive to Enlightenment (based on Vism. XXII.41-43). |
In terms of other Pali commentaries, the are also mentioned in Dhammapada-Aṭṭhakathā (DhA i.230), Suttanipāta-Aṭṭhakathā (SnA 164), and Jātaka-Aṭṭhakathā (J i.275, iii.290, and v.483).[19]
The Digha Nikaya (DN 27) and Itivuttaka (Iti., 82, 97) discourses each refer to "seven" factors of enlightenment. In his translation of DN 27, Walshe (1995, pp. 415 para. 30, 605 n. 854) interprets the "seven" to refer to the seven enlightenment factors described in the Mahasatipatthana Sutta (DN 22). Conversely, in their translations of the Itivuttaka discourses, Ireland (1997) and Thanissaro (2001) interpret the "seven" as referring to the "seven groups of" or "seven [sets of]" factors of enlightenment, respectively. None of these three discourses themselves explicitly identifies which seven factors or sets of factors are being referenced. Moreover, the Anguttara Nikaya (AN 5.56, 6.17, 9.1) discourses neither numerically quantify nor elaborate upon the terms or (respectively). Uniquely, in the three discourses from the Samyutta Nikaya (48.51, 48.55, 48.57), all three explicitly associate the term (and variant spellings) solely with the five faculties of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom (Bodhi, 2000, p. 1695).
Perhaps summing up the vagueness and apparent inconsistencies in these identified discourses and their translations, in an end note to the Sālā Sutta (SN 48.51) Bodhi (2000, p. 1937 n. 235) comments: "In the commentaries is the umbrella term for the seven sets of training factors repeatedly taught by the Buddha, but in the suttas the expression has a more flexible, less technical meaning." Bodhi then refers to Gethin (1992), pp. 289–98, for further discussion.
"In the Buddhist exegetical tradition, beginning very soon after the age of the canon, these seven sets are known as the thirty-seven aids to enlightenment . Although this term is not used in the Nikāyas themselves as a collective appellation for the seven sets, the sets themselves frequently appear in the Nikāyas as a compendium of the practice leading to enlightenment."