List of armed factions in the Syrian Civil War explained

A number of states and armed groups have involved themselves in the Syrian civil war (2011–present) as belligerents. The main groups are the Syrian Arab Republic and allies, the Syrian opposition and allies, Al-Qaeda and affiliates, Islamic State, and the originally mostly Kurdish Syrian Democratic Forces.

Syrian Arab Republic and allies

See main article: Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region and Syrian Arab Republic. A number of sources have emphasized that as of at least late-2015/early-2016 the Syrian Arab Republic was dependent on a mix of volunteers and militias, rather than the Syrian Armed Forces.^{[1] [2]} Between 2016 and 2020, with the help of Russia and Iran, the Syrian Arab Armed Forces were rebuilt and united most of the armed militias.^[3]

Syrian Armed Forces

See main article: Syrian Armed Forces. The Syrian Armed Forces are made up of the Syrian Arab Army (includes Republican Guard), Syrian Naval Forces, Syrian Air Forces and Syrian Air Defense Forces. Before the uprising and war broke out, the Syrian Armed Forces were estimated at 295,000 regular troops and 314,000 reservists.^[4] While the higher positions in the army were mostly occupied by Alawites, the ground troops were mostly made up of Sunnis, and once the uprisings began, the Syrian regime hesitated to employ these troops against the Sunni rebels.^[5] Therefore, the army relied on loyal elite units and Alawite militias such as the Shabiha. Due to defections following the uprisings, by the end of 2013 the number of regular troops had decreased to around 110,000.^[6] As of 2024, the Syrian Army was estimated at 169,000 active troops.^[7] Most of the divisions in the army are under-strength, but Russia has been assisting in the reconstruction and re-equipment of some divisions.

National Defense Forces

See main article: National Defence Forces (Syria). The Syrian NDF (Arabic: قوات الدفاع الوطني Quwāt ad-Difāʿ al-Watanī) was formed out of pro-government militias in 2013.^[8] The forces act in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in coordination with the army, who provides them with logistical and artillery support. Many of the fighters are trained in Iran,^[9] and they receive their salaries and military equipment from the Syrian government.^[10] As of 2024, the NDF numbers around 50,000 troops.^[11] The forces have a 500-strong women's wing called "Lionesses of National Defense" which operates checkpoints.^[12] The NDF are mostly made up of Alawites, but many of the Syrian Christian militias (such as Sootoro in Al-Hasakah) also fight on the Syrian government's side to defend their ancient towns, villages and farmsteads from ISIL (see also Christian Militias in Syria).^[13]

Shabiha

See main article: Shabiha. The Shabiha (Levantine Arabic: شَبِّيحَة , pronounced as /ar/; also romanized Shabeeha or Shabbiha;) are unofficial pro-government militias drawn largely from Syria's Alawite minority group. Since the uprising, the Baathist Syrian government has been accused of using Shabiha to break up protests and enforce laws in restive neighborhoods.^[14] As the protests escalated into an armed conflict, the opposition started using the term Shabiha to describe civilians they suspected of supporting Bashar al-Assad and the Syrian government and clashing with pro-opposition demonstrators.^[15] The opposition blames the Shabiha for the many violent excesses committed against anti-government protesters and opposition sympathizers, as well as looting and destruction.^[16]

The Shabiha phenomenon started in the 1980s, not as one specific group but as a number of criminal and semi-criminal groups affiliated with the Assad clan. Bassel al-Assad attempted to curtail their activities in the 1990s but did not fully succeed. The Shabiha have been described as "a notorious Alawite paramilitary, who are accused of acting as unofficial enforcers for Assad's government";^[17] "gunmen loyal to Assad",^[18] and, according to the Qatar-based Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies, "semi-criminal gangs thugs close to the government". Despite the group's image as an Alawite militia, some Shabiha operating in Aleppo have been reported to be Sunnis.^[19]

Hezbollah

See main article: Hezbollah involvement in the Syrian civil war.

Hezbollah is an Iran-backed Shia armed group and political force based in Lebanon. On 25 May 2013, its leader Hassan Nasrallah confirmed that Hezbollah troops were fighting with the Syrian army against Islamic extremists and pledged that "his group will not allow Syrian militants to control areas that border Lebanon".^[20] In the televised address, he said, "If Syria falls in the hands of America, Israel and the takfiris, the people of our region will go into a dark period." He also called on Shiites and Hezbollah to protect the shrine of Sayida Zeinab.^[21] President Bashar al-Assad had denied earlier that May that there were foreign fighters, Arab or otherwise, fighting for the government in Syria.^[22]

Hezbollah's decision to aid the Syrian government is most likely due to the fact that they enjoy the protection of the government when it comes to the group's arms procurement and storage in Syria. Syria forms an important access corridor between Hezbollah in Lebanon and their supporter, Iran, and the survival of a regime that was friendly to Hezbollah was in the group's best interest.

In 2012 and 2013, Hezbollah was active in gaining control of territory in the Homs Governorate in Syria.^[23] By May 2013 the group was publicly collaborating with the Syrian Army^{[24] [25]} and helping them to gain control of 60 percent of Al-Qusayr by May 14th. In Lebanon, an increase in the funerals of Hezbollah fighters was reported, as well as the shelling of Hezbollah-controlled areas by Syrian rebels.

According to independent analysts, by the beginning of 2014, approximately 500 Hezbollah fighters had died in the Syrian conflict.^[26] In 2014, Nasrallah claimed the Hezbollah fighters had helped Assad take back control over the country, and that the Syrian regime was no longer in danger of being toppled.^[27] The current number of Hezbollah troops in Syria is estimated to be around 7000-8000.

Iran

See main article: Iranian involvement in the Syrian civil war.

Since the civil uprising phase of the Syrian civil war, Iran has provided the Syrian Arab Republic with financial, technical, and military support, including the training and sending of combat troops.^[28] Iran and Syria are close strategic allies, as Iran sees the survival of the Assad government as being crucial to its regional interests.^{[29] [30]} Iran's supreme leader, Ali Khamenei, was reported to be vocally in favor of the Baathist government.^[31]

By December 2013, Iran was thought to have approximately 10,000 operatives in Syria. But according to Jubin Goodarzi, assistant professor and researcher at Webster University, Iran aided Baathist Syria with a limited number of deployed units and personnel, "at most in the hundreds ... and not in the thousands as opposition sources claimed".^[32] Lebanese Hezbollah fighters backed by Tehran have taken direct combat roles since 2012.^[33] In the summer of 2013, Iran and Hezbollah provided important battlefield support for Syrian forces, allowing them to make advances on the opposition. In 2014, coinciding with the peace talks at Geneva II, Iran has stepped up support for Syrian President Assad. The Syrian Minister of Finance and Economy stated more than 15 billion dollars had come from the Iranian government.^[34] Prior to his assassination, Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps's Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani was in charge of Syrian President Assad's security portfolio and oversaw the arming and training of thousands of pro-government Shi'ite fighters.^[35]

By 2015, 328 IRGC troops, including several commanders, had reportedly been killed in the Syrian civil war since it began.^[36] As of 2024, the estimated number of Iranian troops in Syria is 1500.

Foreign Shia militias

Besides training and sending troops, Iran has also recruited Shia fighters from Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan to fight on behalf of the Syrian Arab Republic.^[37] The number of Afghans fighting in Syria has been estimated at "between 10,000 and 18,000" at its height, but is currently estimated between 500-1500.^[38] The main force composed of Afghan fighters is the liwa' fatimiyun (Fatemiyoun Brigade), which was found in late 2012.^{[39] [40]} The number of Pakistani fighters is much lower, between 800 and 2500, and concentrated in the liwa' zaynabiyun (Zaynabiyun Brigade) formed in November 2015.^[41] Many or most of the fighters were refugees living in Iran, and survivors and defectors of the Fatemiyoun reported being coerced or bribed into joining the militia, and being sent to the most dangerous front lines with little to no training.^[42]

Russia

See main article: Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War.

See also: Russian naval facility in Tartus.

See also: Hmeimim Air Base.

On 30 September 2015, Russia launched a military intervention in Syria to support the government of Bashar al-Assad in its fight against the Syrian opposition and Islamic State (IS).^{[43] [44]} The Russian government and the Assad government had long been allies, and the fall of the regime would have meant the loss of an important Russian ally in the region.^[45] The Russian forces proved to be a deciding factor in the war, helping the Assad regime to stay in power.^[46] The Syrian war became an important testing ground and boost for Russian mercenary armies, such as the Wagner Group. In 2022, Russia withdrew most of their troops from Syria, to reinforce their army at the front in Ukraine.^[47] As of 2024, the estimated number of Russian troops in Syria is 4000.

In a March 2023 interview with Russian media, Assad stated that he would welcome more Russian troops and military bases in Syrian territory.^[48]

Syrian opposition and allies

See main article: Syrian opposition.

Syrian National Coalition and Interim Government

Syrian National Council

See main article: article and Syrian National Council. Formed on 23 August 2011, the National Council is a coalition of anti-government groups, based in Turkey. The group includes signatories of the 2005 Damascus Declaration, the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood, Kurdish and Assyrian factions, representatives of Alawi communities and Local Coordination Committees.^[49] The National Council seeks the end of Bashar al-Assad's rule and the establishment of a modern, civil, democratic state. SNC has links with the Free Syrian Army. The Kurdish parties eventually left the Council, after it resisted their demands for political decentralisation.

Syrian National Coalition

See main article: National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces. On 11 November 2012 in Doha, the National Council and other opposition groups united as the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces.^[50] The Syrian National Council has 22 out of 60 seats of the Syrian National Coalition.^[51] The following day, it was recognised as the legitimate government of Syria by numerous Arab Gulf states, and later by the US, France, Turkey, Spain and the UK as well.^[52]

Delegates to the Coalition's leadership council are to include women and representatives of religious and ethnic minorities, including Alawites. The military council will reportedly include the Free Syrian Army.^[53] The main aims of the National Coalition are replacing the Bashar al-Assad government and "its symbols and pillars of support", "dismantling the security services", unifying and supporting the Free Syrian Army, refusing dialogue and negotiation with the al-Assad government, and "holding accountable those responsible for killing Syrians, destroying [Syria], and displacing [Syrians]."^[54]

The NC was criticised for their weak political and organisational dynamics, caused by internal power conflicts. The NC's main function was to coordinate the humanitarian assistance, instead of forming a real political leadership.

Interim Government

See main article: Syrian Interim Government. In 2013, after pressure from France, Turkey and Qatar, the Syrian National Coalition formed the Syrian Interim Government (SIG), in order to rule the territories which had been liberated from the regime.^[55] The SIG was created to give the opposition movement more legitimacy 'on the ground', by offering humanitarian assistance and governance. The minister of defence was to be chosen by the Free Syrian Army.^[56] The interim government's headquarters in Syria are located in the city of Azaz in Aleppo Governorate.^{[57] [58]} As of June 2019 its prime minister is Abdurrahman Mustafa and as of July 2021 its president is Salem al-Meslet.

Free Syrian Army and affiliate groups

See main article: Free Syrian Army. The formation of the Free Syrian Army (FSA) was announced on 29 July 2011 by a group of defecting Syrian Army officers, encouraging others to defect to defend civilian protesters from violence by the state and effect government change.^[59] By December 2011, estimates of the number of defectors to the FSA ranged from 1,000 to over 25,000.^[60] The group received weaponry, provisions and money from regional states such as Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey, and from the US.^[61] The FSA, initially "headquartered" in Turkey, moved its headquarters to northern Syria in September 2012, and currently functions more as an umbrella organisation than a traditional military chain of command.^[62]

The group started out with guerilla-style raids and ambushes, but as they gathered more members more complex assault tactics were used.

The designation of the FSA by the West as a moderate opposition faction has allowed it, under the CIA-run programmes,^{[63] [64]} to receive sophisticated weaponry and other military support from the U.S., Turkey and some Gulf countries.^[65] However, the aid which was coming in from other countries did not flow through a centralised command but in a fragmented way, based on personal contacts, which led to internal rivalries within the FSA.

Abu Yusaf, a commander of the Islamic State (IS), claimed in August 2014 that many of the FSA members who had been trained by United States' and Turkish and Arab military officers ended up joining IS.^[66] However, by September 2014 the Free Syrian Army was joining an alliance and common front with Kurdish militias including the YPG to fight IS.^[67]

In December 2015, according to the American Institute for the Study of War, groups identifying as FSA were still present around Aleppo and Hama and in southern Syria, and the FSA was still "the biggest and most secular of the rebel groups."^[68] However, the group continued to suffer losses from fighters who joined the Syrian Democratic Forces or IS.^[69]

After the Turkish military intervention in Syria in 2016, and as other countries began to scale back their involvement, the FSA became more dependent on Turkish help.^[70] For the FSA, Turkey was a sanctuary and a source of supplies. From late August 2016, the Turkish government assembled a new coalition of Syrian rebel groups, including many that were in the FSA. Often referred to as the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army (TFSA), this force would adopt the name Syrian National Army in 2017.^{[71] [72]}

By March 2017, the FSA together with Kurdish militias finished clearing the Islamic State from the north of Syria.^[73]

The FSA currently works in the 55 km area, alongside the border with Iraq and Jordan to prevent drug trafficking and IS activity in the region.^{[74] [75]}

Syrian National Army

See main article: Syrian National Army. On 30 December 2017, at least 30 factions operating under the banner of the Syrian Interim Government merged in a unified armed group after four months of preparations. Jawad Abu Hatab, the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister, announced the forming of the Syrian National Army after meeting with rebel commanders in the town of Azaz. The newly formed body claimed to have 22,000 fighters, many of them trained and equipped by Turkey.^[76] Though concentrated in Turkish-occupied areas, originally as a part of Operation Euphrates Shield,^[77] the SNA also established a presence in the Idlib Governorate during the 2019 northwestern Syria offensive,^{[78] [79] [77]} and consolidated its presence when the National Front for Liberation joined the SNA on 4 October 2019.

The official aims of the group are to assist the Republic of Turkey in creating a "safe zone" in Syria, and to establish a National Army.^[80] They are strong opponents of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF),^{[81] [82]} and have also fought the Islamic State (ISIL) and, to a lesser extent, the Baathist Syrian government's Syrian Arab Army. The SNA has a law enforcement equivalent, the Free Police, which is also backed by Turkey. The SNA currently controls the Afrin area, and nearby areas of Syria bordering Turkey, including the town of Jarabalus.^[83] They are currently estimated to have around 70,000 fighters, and have been involved in clashes with the group Hayat Tahrir al-Sham since 2022.

National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change

See main article: National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change. Formed in 2011 and based in Damascus, the National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change is an opposition bloc consisting of 13 left-wing and Arab nationalist political parties and "independent political and youth activists".^[84] It has been defined by Reuters as the internal opposition's main umbrella group. In 2011, the group organised its first conference, opposing militarisation, internationalisation and sectarianisation of the uprising. Initially, the NCC had several Kurdish political parties as members, but all except for the Democratic Union Party left in October 2011 to join the Kurdish National Council.^[85]

Relations with other Syrian political opposition groups are generally poor. In 2011, the on-the-ground protest movement rejected the NCC in favour of the Syrian National Council (SNC). The Syrian Revolution General Commission, the Local Coordination Committees of Syria and the Supreme Council of the Syrian Revolution oppose the NCC' calls to dialogue with the Baathist government.^[86] Some of the organisations have accused the NCC of being a "front organisation" for Bashar al-Assad's government and some of its members of being ex-government insiders.^[87] In September 2012, the SNC reaffirmed that despite broadening its membership, it would not join with "currents close to [the] NCC".^[88] Despite the NCC recognising the Free Syrian Army on 23 September 2012,^[89] the FSA has dismissed the NCC as an extension of the government, stating that "this opposition is just the other face of the same coin".^[90]

In June 2023, the NCC came to an agreement with the Syrian Democratic Council and the two groups published a "consensus document" in which they stated their shared goals and visions for the future of Syria.^[91] These goals include the drafting of a new constitution, the rejection of separatist and divisive groups and the establishment of one united national democratic front.

Al-Qaeda and affiliates

See also: Al-Qaeda. Al-Qaeda is a jihadist militant group that was found in 1988 in Pakistan by Osama Bin Laden.^[92] Several groups aligned with Al-Qaeda have become armed actors in the Syrian Civil War.

Al-Nusra Front / Jabhat Fateh al-Sham

See main article: Al-Nusra Front. Prior to the expansion of ISIL, al-Qaeda's Syrian affiliate,^[93] the al-Nusra Front was often considered to be the most aggressive and violent part of the opposition.^[94] Being responsible for over 50 suicide bombings, including several deadly explosions in Damascus in 2011 and 2012, it was recognized as a terrorist organization by the Syrian Arab Republic and was designated as such by United States in December 2012.^[95] In April 2013, the leader of the Islamic State of Iraq released an audio statement announcing that al-Nusra Front is its branch in Syria.^[96] The leader of al-Nusra, Abu Mohammad al-Julani, said that the group would not merge with the Islamic State of Iraq but would still maintain allegiance to Ayman al-Zawahiri, the leader of al-Qaeda.^[97] From 2012 to 2016, the estimated manpower of al-Nusra Front was approximately 6,000–10,000 people, including many foreign fighters.^{[98] [99] [100]}

The relationship between the al-Nusra Front and the indigenous Syrian opposition was tense, even though al-Nusra has fought alongside the FSA in several battles and some FSA fighters defected to the al-Nusra Front.^[101] The Mujahideen's strict religious views and willingness to impose sharia law disturbed many Syrians.^[102] Some rebel commanders have accused foreign jihadists of "stealing the revolution", robbing Syrian factories and displaying religious intolerance.^[103]

The al-Nusra Front renamed itself Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS) in June 2016. In 2017, the group merged together with other groups into Hayat Tahrir al-Sham.

Hayat Tahrir al-Sham

See main article: articles, Tahrir al-Sham and Syrian Salvation Government. In January 2017, Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) was formed when al-Nusra joined with other Salafi factions Ansar al-Din Front, Jaysh al-Sunna, the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement and Liwa al-Haqq. (The Ansar al-Din Front and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement have since split off).^{[104] [105]} The newly-formed HTS went on to gain more followers from defectors from Ahrar al-Sham. HTS fighters went after IS militants who fled to Idlib after their defeat and cracked down on Hurras al-Din, another militant group with ties to al-Qaeda.^[106]

In November 2017, HTS created the Syrian Salvation government, an alternative government of the Syrian Opposition which currently governs parts of the Idlib Governorate. It is seen as illegitimate by the opposition's main Syrian Interim Government.^[107] Initially, the Salvation government harshly enforced a strict interpretation of Islamic law, but in recent years the group has become more tolerant. The religious police has been disbanded and the HTS leader is advocating against the US designation of the group as a terrorist organisation, calling it "unfair". Contrary to al-Qaeda, HTS does not strive to create a global caliphate but is more locally oriented, with its primary objective being the establishment of Islamic rule in Syria through “toppling the criminal [Assad] regime and expelling the Iranian militias."^[108] The group gains money through spoils captured from the regime and opposition factions, prisoner exchange deals, the plunder of historical sites and the selling of artifacts, the claiming of private property from Christians and government supporters, and through taxes.^[109]

The current leader of HTS is Abu Mohammad al-Julani. The group had an estimated 10,000 members in 2024. HTS has denied being part of al-Qaeda and said in a statement that it is "an independent entity and not an extension of previous organisations or factions".^[110] The group has been involved in fierce clashes with the Syrian National Army in the north of Syria since 2022. In the beginning of 2024, protests broke out across Idlib province against HTS, their mismanagement of the local economy, and the detention and torture of political prisoners.^[111]

Hurras al-Din

See main article: Hurras al-Din. Tanzim Hurras al-Din is a Salafi Jihadist group that was formed as a merger between several al-Qaeda aligned factions in February 2018.^[112] The head of the group, Abu Humam al-Shami, is a Syrian who fought with al-Qaeda in Afghanistan during the 1990s and previously with the al-Nusra Front, but who left when the group broke official ties with al-Qaeda.^{[113] [114]} Since 2020, Hurras al-Din has not been officially endorsed by al-Qaeda. The group is currently estimated to have around 2500 fighters, an estimated half of whom are foreign fighters, a much higher percentage than in HTS.

Islamic State

See main article: Islamic State. The group called Dā'ash or the Islamic State (abbrv. IS, ISIL or ISIS), began to make rapid military gains in Northern Syria starting in April 2013 and as of mid-2014 controlled large parts of that region, where the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights described it as "the strongest group".^[115] The group strives to establish a global caliphate, by waging war on the "disbelievers".^[116] It has imposed strict Sharia law over land that it controls. The group was found by the Iraqi fighter Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, and had an estimated 7,000 fighters in Syria, including many non-Syrians, by the end of 2013.^[117] IS was originally affiliated with al-Qaeda, until al-Qaeda officially severed ties with the group in early 2014.

The group gathered international attention for its gruesome abuses of human rights and for not tolerating non-Islamist militia groups, foreign journalists or aid workers, whose members it has expelled, imprisoned, or executed.^{[118] [119]} Just across the border from Syria in Iraq, IS has carried out a genocide of the Yazidi people, killing hundreds of men, enslaving thousands of women and children and expelling the Yazidis from their homeland.

By summer 2014, ISIL controlled a third of Syria. It established itself as the dominant force of Syrian opposition, defeating Jabhat al-Nusra in Deir Ezzor Governorate and claiming control over most of Syria's oil and gas production.^[120] Mostly, the group was engaging in offensives against the Syrian Armed Forces and the Free Syrian Army, but they also targeted the Syrian Democratic Forces.^[121] ISIL have planted bombs in the ancient city area of Palmyra, which is counted as a UNESCO World Heritage Site as it is home to some of the most extensive and best-preserved ancient Roman ruins in the world.^[122] Having lost nearly half of their territory in Iraq between 2014 and 2016, some Islamic State leaders in Iraq moved into Syria, further destabilising the region.^[123]

Starting in 2014, an international coalition of states intervened against ISIL. A number of countries, including some individual NATO members, participated in air operations in Syria that came to be overseen by the Combined Joint Task Force, set up by the US Central Command to coordinate military efforts against ISIL pursuant to their collectively undertaken commitments, including those of 3 December 2014.^[124] Those who have conducted airstrikes in Syria include the United States, Australia, Bahrain, Canada, France, Jordan, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom.^[125] Some members are involved in the conflict beyond combating ISIL; Turkey has been accused of fighting against Kurdish forces in Syria and Iraq, including intelligence collaborations with ISIL in some cases.^[126] As of December 2017, Russia declared ISIL to be totally defeated within Syria.^[127] At the end of 2018, the US declared it defeated, although its UK and German allies disagreed.^{[128] [129]} On 23 March 2019 the US-backed Syrian Democratic Forces declared ISIS Defeated, after seizing their last enclave of territory.^[130] In October 2019, the US assassinated IS leader al-Baghdadi.^{[131] [132]} ISIL named Abu Ibrahim al Hashimi al-Qurayshi as Baghdadi's successor.^[133] As of 2024, ISIL continues to be active militarily in Northeast Syria, although it has lost almost all of its territory.^[134] Instead, most of the group's activity nowadays is carried out by affiliate branches in Afghanistan, Pakistan and various countries in Africa.^[135] Some international forces have remained in Syria to carry out missions against IS members and to prevent a resurgence of the movement.^[136]

AANES

See main article: Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria. The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, also known as Rojava, is a de facto autonomous region in northeastern Syria.^{[137] [138]} It consists of self-governing sub-regions in the areas of Afrin, Jazira, Euphrates, Raqqa, Tabqa, Manbij, and Deir Ez-Zor.^[139] The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing Rojava conflict and the wider Syrian civil war, in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.^{[140] [141]} The Syrian Democratic Council is the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces and serves as the legislative government of the AANES.

Syrian Democratic Council

See main article: Syrian Democratic Council. The Syrian Democratic Council was established on 10 December 2015 in al-Malikiyah.^[142] It was co-founded by prominent human rights activist Haytham Manna and was intended as the political wing of the Syrian Democratic Forces. The council includes more than a dozen blocs and coalitions that support federalism in Syria, including the Movement for a Democratic Society, the Kurdish National Alliance in Syria, the Law–Citizenship–Rights Movement, and since September 2016, the Syria's Tomorrow Movement. In March 2016 the Council declared the creation of an autonomous federation in Northeast Syria and in August that year they opened a public office in al-Hasakah.^{[143] [144]}

The Syrian Democratic Council was excluded from the international Geneva III peace talks on Syria in March 2016, as well as other talks since, because of opposition from the Turkish state.

Syrian Democratic Forces

See main article: Syrian Democratic Forces and Rojava conflict. The Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) are an alliance of mainly Kurdish but also Arab, Syriac-Assyrian, and Turkmen militias with mainly left-wing and democratic confederalist political leanings. They are opposed to the Assad government, but have directed most of their efforts against Al-Nusra Front and ISIL.

The group formed in December 2015, led primarily by the predominantly Kurdish People's Protection Units (YPG). Estimates of its size range from 55,000^[145] to 80,000 fighters.^[146] While largely Kurdish, it is estimated that about 40% of the fighters are non-Kurdish.^[147] Kurds – mostly Sunni Muslims, with a small minority of Yezidis – represented 10% of Syria's population at the start of the uprising in 2011. They had suffered from decades of discrimination and neglect, being deprived of basic civil, cultural, economic, and social rights.^[148] When protests began, Assad's government finally granted citizenship to an estimated 200,000 stateless Kurds, in an effort to try and neutralize potential Kurdish opposition.^[149] Despite this concession, most Kurds remain opposed to the government, hoping instead for a more decentralized Syria based on federalism.^[150] The Syriac Military Council, like many Syriac-Assyrian militias (such as Khabour Guards, Nattoreh, and Sutoro), originally formed to defend Assyrian villages, but joined the Kurdish forces to retake Hasakah from ISIS in late 2015^[151] The Female Protection Forces of the Land Between the Two Rivers is an all-female force of Assyrian fighters in north east Syria fighting ISIS alongside other Assyrian and Kurdish units.^[152]

The Syrian Democratic Forces have received military and economic support from the US, which regards the group as an important ally in their fight against IS.^[153]

Opposing forces

Notes

• The United States alleged that Belarus and Cuba has provided or attempted to provide direct military support to the Syrian government. Both countries have denied this.^{[623] [624] [625]} There are also unconfirmed reports that Algeria is providing military support to the Syrian government.^{[626] [627]}
• There is regular conflict between the different rebel groups^[628] in the inter-rebel conflict during the Syrian Civil War.
• Jund al-Aqsa was allied with al-Nusra Front and other rebels as part of the Army of Conquest, which the group left in October 2015 and subsequently was accused of being allied with ISIL, taking part in ISIL-led offensives such as the 2016 Khanasir offensive. However, Jund al-Aqsa again worked with the Army of Conquest and other rebels during the 2016 Southern Aleppo campaign. Eventually most of Jund al-Aqsa joined al-Nusra. Conflict between the two broke out in 2017.
• The Kurdish National Council has joined the Syrian National Coalition—though without officially committing any military forces to the opposition—while simultaneously retaining its membership in the Kurdish Supreme Committee, alongside the PYD.^[629]
• Canada withdrew jet fighters from the US-led coalition against ISIL on 15 February 2016.^[630]
• The Syriac Military Council (including Bethnahrain Women's Protection Forces), Sutoro, Ashur Forces (Khabour Guards and Nattoreh) all represent the Assyrian people of Syria.
• Turkey is part of the CJTF–OIR against ISIL, but is also fighting against the SDF, which is supported by CJTF–OIR.^{[631] [632]}
• Russia provides air support to the Syrian Ba'athist government. Previously, it also provided air support to Turkey and the Syrian Democratic Forces against ISIL and some Syrian rebel groups, respectively, but not against one another.^{[633] [634] [635]}
• Serbia, a traditional Orthodox ally of Russia who supports the Assad government, has assisted Russian troops in humanitarian missions on multiple occasions.^[636]
• Armenia, Egypt, Venezuela, Algeria, and China send non-lethal support to the Syrian Government.
• Israel has been neutral throughout the war, but has engaged with Iran as part of the Iran–Israel proxy conflict.

See also

• Combatants of the Iraq War
• Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war
• Foreign fighters in the Syrian Civil War and War in Iraq
• List of armed groups in the War in Iraq (2013–2017)
• List of armed groups in the Second Libyan Civil War
• List of armed groups in the Yemeni Civil War
• List of armed groups in the Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon
• Spillover of the Syrian civil war

External links

• Syrian Civil War factions
• Syrian Civil War factions by Bellingcat

Notes and References

1. Dulmers . Robert . Voeten . Teun . Dateline Damascus: fighting on all fronts . Open Security . 22 February 2015 . In 12 days travelling some 1,200 km, except for special forces in Aleppo we hardly saw any anything of the regular army..
2. Book: Worth . Robert F. . A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS . 2016 . Pan Macmillan . 228 . 9780374710712 . 31 July 2016 . Assad was still in charge but he was utterly dependent on a diverse and toxic mix of volunteer warriors and `popular` militias, some of them manned by criminals. Not all of them were Syrian. A whole Shiite counter-jihad had formed – with fighters coming from Lebanon, Bahrain, even Afghanistan – under the supervision of Iran, Assad's patron. . RFWRfO2016.
3. Web site: Syria Rearms: Russian deliveries of BMP-2s and 2S9s arrive. Oryx blog. 15 June 2017. 11 August 2023.
4. 2011-03-07 . Chapter Ten: Country comparisons – commitments, force levels and economics . The Military Balance . en . 111 . 1 . 451–482 . 10.1080/04597222.2011.559843 . 0459-7222.
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546. News: A breakdown of some of the gear U.S. Special Operations forces are using in Syria. The Washington Post. 25 April 2016.
547. Web site: Trump's Middle Eastern War, A Bay of Pigs in the making. John Sjoholm. Lima Charlie. 8 February 2017. 8 March 2017.
548. News: B-1 Pilots Describe Bombing Campaign Against ISIS in Kobani . The Wall Street Journal . 18 February 2015 . 18 February 2015 . Barnes . Julian E..
549. Web site: US Air Force: 40% of strikes on Syria's Manbij carried out by drones. Wladimir van Wilgenburg. ARA News. 11 April 2017. 11 April 2017. 12 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170412062245/http://aranews.net/2017/04/us-air-force-40-of-strikes-carried-out-by-drones-in-liberation-of-syrias-manbij/. dead.
550. Web site: US F/A-18E Shoots Down Syrian Su-22 in Air-to-Air Kill. Oriana Pawlyk. Military.com. 18 May 2017. 19 June 2017.
551. News: Marines have arrived in Syria to fire artillery in the fight for Raqqa. Dan Lamothe. Thomas Gibbons-Neff. The Washington Post. 8 March 2017. 8 March 2017.
552. Web site: More US special forces for Raqqa than Manbij: monitor. NOW. 8 November 2016. 9 November 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161109022510/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567485-more-us-special-forces-for-raqqa-than-manbij-monitor. dead.
553. Web site: The 75th Ranger Regiment hits the ground in Syria for Raqqa offensive. SOFREP. 6 March 2017.
554. News: UK launches first Syria air strikes. BBC News.
555. Web site: First RAF Typhoon use of Brimstone missile destroys ISIS boat in Syria. 22 February 2019. The Defense Post.
556. Web site: British SAS soldier killed by IS in Syria named as Sergeant Matt Tonroe. Sky News.
557. Web site: France launches new wave of air strikes on IS group targets in Syria's Raqqa. 22 August 2016. France 24.
558. Web site: French army on the front line of 'final battle' against IS group. 10 February 2019. France 24. 16 February 2019.
559. Web site: France admits special forces are advising Syrian rebels – France – Radio France Internationale. 9 June 2016. 10 June 2016.
560. Web site: Netherlands to Extend Airstrikes Against Islamic State Into Syria. 29 January 2016. The Wall Street Journal.
561. Web site: Militaire bijdrage Nederland in Irak en Oost-Syrië . 20 October 2020 . Netherlands Ministry of Defence.
562. Web site: You are being redirected.... nrttv.com. 26 June 2017. 8 February 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180208025307/http://www.nrttv.com/en/Details.aspx?Jimare=14624. dead.
563. Web site: Jordan hits ISIL targets in southern Syria. Al Jazeera. 5 February 2017.
564. News: Middle East Monitor. Saudi Arabia, UAE send troops to support Kurds in Syria. 22 November 2018.
565. News: Along with their American counterparts, Emirati special forces are said to be training elements of the opposition. They constitute a kind of Arab guarantee among the Syrian Democratic Forces – an umbrella group dominated by the Kurds of the PYD, on whom the US are relying to fight IS on the ground.. Al-Araby Al-Jadeed. The UAE has it in for the Muslim Brotherhood. 22 February 2017.
566. News: UAE, Kurds Standing against US, Turkey in Syria. Farsnews. 22 February 2017. 16 April 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20190331155806/http://en.farsnews.ir/newstext.aspx?nn=13951204000349. 31 March 2019. dead.
567. Web site: The U.S. bombing of Syria implicates many of Trump's business interests. 16 April 2018. Vox.
568. Web site: Iraqi air force targets IS sites in Syria ahead of elections. Al-Monitor. Omar Sattar. 11 May 2018.
569. News: Activists and a rebel commander say Kurdish fighters have launched an attack in northern Syria under the cover of Russian airstrikes to try and capture a military air base held by insurgents. US News. 10 February 2016.
570. Web site: Russia cooperates with PYD against ISIL. 9 October 2015. Today's Zaman. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20151029041050/http://www.todayszaman.com/diplomacy_russia-cooperates-with-pyd-against-isil_401118.html. 29 October 2015.
571. News: Russian support for PKK's Syrian arm PYD. Anadolu Agency.
572. News: Kurds attack Turkish-backed Syrian opposition forces with Russian help. i24 News. 28 November 2015.
573. News: YPG advances near Turkey's border. https://web.archive.org/web/20151208144328/http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/28112015. 8 December 2015. Rudaw Media Network. 28 November 2015.
574. News: Russia supporting Kurdish groups in Syria to Turkey's detriment. The Washington Times. 8 February 2016. L. Todd. Wood.
575. Web site: Syrian War Daily – 29th of April 2018. Syrian War Daily. 29 April 2018. Joško Barić. 30 April 2018. 1 July 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180701210515/https://syrianwardaily.com/2018/04/29/syrian-war-daily-29th-of-april-2018/. dead.
576. News: Syrian Armed Forces and Hezbollah Close-in on Al-Zabadani. Leith Fadel. Al-Masdar News. 7 July 2015. 16 July 2015. 9 July 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150709235848/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-armed-forces-and-hezbollah-close-in-on-al-zabadani/. dead.
577. Web site: منشقون عن "جند الأقصى" يشكلون "أنصار التوحيد" بإدلب. baladi-news.com.
578. Charles_Lister . 1413131854421450752 . Charles . Lister . 8 July 2021 .
     1. HTS's aggressive pursuit of unchallenged authority in NW #Syria took another step today, with the forcible dissolution of Junud al-Sham. It's [sic] leader, Murad Margoshvili (Muslim al-Shishani) is a revered Chechen jihad veteran & former sub-commander for #Saudi "Emir Khattab."
     .
579. News: Joscelyn. Thomas. Jihadists and other rebels claim to have broken through siege of Aleppo. Long War Journal. 7 August 2016.
580. Web site: Jihadists and other rebels claim to have broken through siege of Aleppo. Thomas Joscelyn. The Long War Journal. 7 August 2016. 7 August 2016.
581. Web site: Bataille d'Idlib: les snipers albanais des djihadistes d'Hayat Tahrir al-Cham . 2022-12-20 . FranceSoir . fr.
582. Web site: Jihadists in Syria's Idlib Form New 'Operations Room' | Voice of America - English. voanews.com. 15 June 2020 .
583. Web site: Clashes broke out between Tahrir Al-Sham and "Stand Firm" factions west of Idlib city. 23 June 2020. Call Syria. 21 November 2020. 24 August 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200824230120/https://nedaa-sy.com/en/news/20998. dead.
584. Web site: Tarkhan's Jamaat (Katiba İbad ar-Rahman) Fighting In Hama Alongside Muslim Shishani. 29 January 2018. 24 February 2018. 4 February 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180204000107/http://www.chechensinsyria.com/?p=25655. dead.
585. Web site: Caucasus Emirate in Syria fighting in Aleppo – The Long War Journal. 19 June 2016.
586. News: Raging clashes pit Syrian Kurds against jihadists. AFP. 18 January 2013. NOW. 15 July 2013. 27 September 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130927192733/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/nowsyrialatestnews/raging_clashes_pit_syrian_kurds_against_jihadists. dead.
587. Web site: Foreign jihadists involved in Hama fighting . Caleb Weiss . Long War Journal . 12 June 2019 . 15 June 2019.
588. News: Pakistan Taliban set up camps in Syria, join anti-Assad war. https://web.archive.org/web/20130714220351/https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/07/14/us-pakistan-syria-taliban-idUSBRE96D02V20130714. 14 July 2013. Reuters.
589. News: Taliban-Aligned Uzbek Suicide Bomber Attacks Shi'ite Village In Syria. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . 23 September 2015 . RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 23 September 2015. Paraszczuk . Joanna . Anvar . Barno .
590. Web site: O'Bagy, Elizabeth . Jihad in Syria. Institute for the Study Of War. September 2012. 4 November 2013.
591. Web site: Lund, Aron. Holy Warriors. https://web.archive.org/web/20121018230144/http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/10/15/holy_warriors. 18 October 2012. Foreign Policy. 15 October 2012. 4 November 2013.
592. Web site: Baker, Aryn . Aysha, Rami . amp. Lebanon's Most Wanted Sunni Terrorist Blows Himself Up in Syria. Ya Libnan. 23 April 2013. 8 June 2013.
593. Web site: Aron Lund. The Other Syrian Peace Process. Carnegie Endowment for Peace. 27 January 2014. 14 October 2014.
594. News: Rebels fighting against al-Assad rule fragmented, disorganized in Syria . . 2 September 2012 . 10 September 2012.
595. Web site: The Rebel Brigades deny the control of the "Kurdistan" on the "Al Yaroubiya" crossing in Hasakah. El-Dorar al-Shamia. 26 October 2013.
596. Web site: (Graphic +18) Group of jihadists killed in Golan Heights after attacking Tal Taranjeh. Al-Masdar News. 15 September 2016. 15 September 2016. 2 August 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170802003127/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/graphic-18-group-jihadists-killed-golan-heights-attacking-tal-taranjeh/. dead.
597. Web site: What We Learned While Embedded With Kurdish Forces Clearing the Islamic State From Hasakah. VICE News. 19 August 2015 . 2015-08-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20150820171649/https://news.vice.com/article/what-we-learned-while-embedded-with-kurdish-forces-clearing-the-islamic-state-from-hasakah. 2015-08-20. live.
598. Web site: Explainer: IS redraws boundaries of its local Syrian 'branches' . . . 11 October 2018 . 16 November 2018.
599. Web site: Abdel Basset Sarout on ISIS and Revolution: Translation of Interview Excerpts. 6 May 2016.
600. Web site: Assad Al Mohammad. The Islamic State's effort to co-opt Tanzim Hurras ad-Din. Program on Extremism: The George Washington University. November 2019.
601. Web site: ISIS reportedly attacked U.S. base in northern Syria. Zen Adra. al-Masdar News. 14 August 2016. 14 August 2016. 4 July 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180704215144/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/isis-reportedly-attacked-u-s-base-northern-syria/. dead.
602. Web site: Notes from Manbij - A poem. Joanna Paraszczuk. From Chechnya to Syria. 7 August 2016. 12 January 2017. 13 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170113151859/http://www.chechensinsyria.com/?p=25224. dead.
603. Web site: IS members arrested in Kuwait, warrants issued for others – Suspects accused of funding, promoting, fighting with radical group. Kuwait Times. 17 September 2014. 4 January 2017. 11 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190411155443/http://news.kuwaittimes.net/members-arrested-kuwait-warrants-issued-others-suspects-accused-funding-promoting-fighting-radical-group/. dead.
604. Web site: Three Malaysian ISIS jihadists killed in Raqqa airstrike. Channel NewsAsia. Amy Chew. 6 April 2023. 17 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170117141443/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asiapacific/malaysian-is-leader-killed-in-syria-recruited-members-through/3440248.html. dead.
605. 815626322517127168. DanieleRaineri. Abu Muhammad al Adnani named the.... 9 February 2017 . 1 January 2017.
606. Web site: By "Caliphate Cubs and the costume of Self-Defense", "Islamic State" carry out Tal Abyad military operations. SOHR. 8 March 2016. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20160305102436/http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=44578. 5 March 2016.
607. Web site: ROJAVA UPDATE 190: AS "CEASEFIRE" TAKES EFFECT ACROSS SYRIA, ISLAMIC STATE LAUNCH MASSIVE ATTACK AGAINST THE KURDS. Peter Clifford Online. en-GB. 7 March 2016.
608. Web site: Badr in Palmyra, May 2015: Fighter account reveals IS's military strategy and tactics . Joanna Paraszczuk . From Chechnya to Syria . 9 April 2019 . 25 April 2019 . 25 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190425210102/http://www.chechensinsyria.com/?p=26231 . dead .
609. Web site: Inside 'The Caliphate Army': ISIS's Special Forces Military Unit Of Foreign Fighters. International Business Times. Alessandria Masi. 3 March 2015. 31 December 2016.
610. Web site: Islamic State replaces Syrian officials by foreign jihadists in Raqqa. ARA News. Haytham Mustafa. 31 December 2016. 31 December 2016. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20170101091249/http://aranews.net/2016/12/islamic-state-replaces-syrian-officials-foreign-jihadists-raqqa/. 1 January 2017.
611. Web site: Top ISIS military official killed by SDF fire in Raqqa city. ARA News. Dilber Issa. 12 June 2017. 16 June 2017. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20170617235943/http://aranews.net/2017/06/top-isis-military-official-killed-by-sdf-fire-in-raqqa-city/. 17 June 2017.
612. Web site: Dissident assured on IS' collapse, mass fleeing situations . Hawar News Agency. 17 June 1017.
613. Web site: Far from Raqqa and Fallujah, Syria rebels open new front against ISIL in the south. The National. 29 May 2016.
614. Web site: Jabhat al-Nusra, IS clash in Daraa. Al Monitor. 20 December 2014. 16 December 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141220101714/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2014/12/jabhat-al-nusra-islamic-state-clash-qalamoun-risks-daraa.html. 20 December 2014. dead.
615. Web site: Al-Nusra overtakes Hazm in Aleppo countryside. Al Monitor. 3 March 2015. 3 March 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150306174126/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/security/2015/03/syria-aleppo-countryside-hazm-movement.html. 6 March 2015. dead.
616. Web site: ISIS and Syria's Southern Front. Middle East Institute. 18 April 2015.
617. Web site: Islamic State raises flags over towns in Daraa after fierce battles. Middle East Eye.
618. Web site: "جيش الجهاد".. هل هو خلايا نائمة لـ"داعش" في درعا والقنيطرة؟. 9 May 2015.
619. Web site: Dokumacılar grubu nedir?. https://web.archive.org/web/20150724071113/http://www.medya365.com/guncel/dokumacilar-grubu-nedir-h302951.html. 24 July 2015. 23 July 2015. medya365.com.
620. Web site: Suruç'u Kana Bulayan Bombacının da Emniyette Kaydı Varmış!. 23 July 2015. Haberler.com.
621. Web site: Search for the dead begins in Idlib after Islamic State-linked brigade leaves for Raqqa. Syria Direct. 22 February 2017.
622. Book: ISIS: Inside the Army of Terror. Michael. Weiss. Hassan. Hassan. 29 March 2016. Simon and Schuster. 9781682450208. Google Books. Updated.
623. News: Fox News Channel. Top Cuban general, key forces in Syria to aid Assad, Russia, sources say. 14 October 2015.
624. News: Reuters. Cuba denies it has sent troops to Syria to help Assad. 18 October 2018.
625. Web site: Belarus denies US allegations on selling arms to Syria. Breaking News Network. 5 December 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20140202183750/http://breakingnews.sy/en/article/7421.html. 2 February 2014. dead.
626. Book: Rajan, V.G. Julie. Al Qaeda's Global Crisis. Routledge. 2015.
627. Web site: Hussain. Ghaffar. After the Arab Spring: Algeria's standing in a new world. The Commentator. 5 December 2013. 2 July 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160702133757/http://www.thecommentator.com/article/3030/after_the_arab_spring_algeria_s_standing_in_a_new_world/. dead.
628. Web site: Syrian Kurds, rebels find common enemy in ISIS. Al Monitor. 27 March 2014. 27 March 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140328011258/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/03/syria-kurds-pyd-ypg-isis-rebels-kobani-afrin.html. 28 March 2014.
629. Web site: PYD Leader Skeptical of Kurdish Agreement With Syrian Opposition. Rudaw.net. 9 March 2013. 4 November 2013.
630. Web site: Canadian Armed Forces cease airstrike operations in Iraq and Syria. 17 February 2016. Government of Canada. 18 February 2016. 14 March 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160314224918/http://news.gc.ca/web/article-en.do?nid=1034599. dead.
631. Web site: Turkey shells Kurdish positions in Syria for 2nd day. 14 February 2016. 1 September 2016.
632. News: Turkish forces shell Syrian air base captured by Kurds. Reuters . 1 September 2016.
633. Web site: Russian and Turkish jets 'carry out joint raid on ISIL'. www.aljazeera.com.
634. Web site: Aleppo airstrikes restart as Russia announces major Syria offensive. Emma. Graham-Harrison. 15 November 2016. The Guardian.
635. Web site: Syrian Kurds use Russian and US support to make rapid advances. Middle East Eye.
636. http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/serbia-to-help-moscow-military-operations-in-syria-08-09-2016 Serbia to Help Russian Aid Operation in Syria