In linguistics, a copula /‘kɑpjələ/ (: copulas or copulae; abbreviated) is a word or phrase that links the subject of a sentence to a subject complement, such as the word is in the sentence "The sky is blue" or the phrase was not being in the sentence "It was not being cooperative." The word copula derives from the Latin noun for a "link" or "tie" that connects two different things.[1] [2]
A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word, though this is not universally the case.[3] A verb that is a copula is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb. In English primary education grammar courses, a copula is often called a linking verb. In other languages, copulas show more resemblances to pronouns, as in Classical Chinese and Guarani, or may take the form of suffixes attached to a noun, as in Korean, Beja, and Inuit languages.
Most languages have one main copula (in English, the verb "to be"), although some (like Spanish, Portuguese and Thai) have more than one, while others have none. While the term copula is generally used to refer to such principal verbs, it may also be used for a wider group of verbs with similar potential functions (like become, get, feel and seem in English); alternatively, these might be distinguished as "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas".
The principal use of a copula is to link the subject of a clause to a subject complement. A copular verb is often considered to be part of the predicate, the remainder being called a predicative expression. A simple clause containing a copula is illustrated below:
The book is on the table.
In that sentence, the noun phrase the book is the subject, the verb is serves as the copula, and the prepositional phrase on the table is the predicative expression. In some theories of grammar, the whole expression is on the table may be called a predicate or a verb phrase.
The predicative expression accompanying the copula, also known as the complement of the copula, may take any of several possible forms: it may be a noun or noun phrase, an adjective or adjective phrase, a prepositional phrase (as above), or an adverb or another adverbial phrase expressing time or location. Examples are given below, with the copula in bold and the predicative expression in italics:
The three components (subject, copula and predicative expression) do not necessarily appear in that order: their positioning depends on the rules for word order applicable to the language in question. In English (an SVO language), the ordering given above is the normal one, but certain variation is possible:
It is also possible, in certain circumstances, for one (or even two) of the three components to be absent:
Inverse copular constructions, in which the positions of the predicative expression and the subject are reversed, are found in various languages.[4] They have been the subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to the difficulty of maintaining, in the case of such sentences, the usual division into a subject noun phrase and a predicate verb phrase.
Another issue is verb agreement when both subject and predicative expression are noun phrases (and differ in number or person): in English, the copula typically agrees with the syntactical subject even if it is not logically (i.e. semantically) the subject, as in the cause of the riot is (not are) these pictures of the wall. Compare Italian Italian: la causa della rivolta '''sono''' queste foto del muro; notice the use of the plural Italian: sono to agree with plural Italian: queste foto rather than with singular Italian: la causa . In instances where an English syntactical subject comprises a prepositional object that is pluralized, however, the prepositional object agrees with the predicative expression, e.g. "What kind of birds are those?"
The definition and scope of the concept of a copula is not necessarily precise in any language. As noted above, though the concept of the copula in English is most strongly associated with the verb to be, there are many other verbs that can be used in a copular sense as well.[5] [6]
And more tenuously
A copular verb may also have other uses supplementary to or distinct from its uses as a copula. Some co-occurrences are common.
The English verb to be is also used as an auxiliary verb, especially for expressing passive voice (together with the past participle) or expressing progressive aspect (together with the present participle):
Other languages' copulas have additional uses as auxiliaries. For example, French French: être can be used to express passive voice similarly to English be; both French French: être and German German: sein are used to express the perfect forms of certain verbs (formerly English be was also):
The auxiliary functions of these verbs derived from their copular function, and could be interpreted as special cases of the copular function (with the verbal forms it precedes being considered adjectival).
Another auxiliary usage in English is to denote an obligatory action or expected occurrence: "I am to serve you". "The manager is to resign". This can be put also into past tense: "We were to leave at 9". For forms like "if I was/were to come", see English conditional sentences. (By certain criteria, the English copula be may always be considered an auxiliary verb; see Diagnostics for identifying auxiliary verbs in English.)
The English to be and its equivalents in certain other languages also have a non-copular use as an existential verb, meaning "to exist". This use is illustrated in the following sentences: I want only to be, and that is enough; I think therefore I am; To be or not to be, that is the question. In these cases, the verb itself expresses a predicate (that of existence), rather than linking to a predicative expression as it does when used as a copula. In ontology it is sometimes suggested that the "is" of existence is reducible to the "is" of property attribution or class membership; to be, Aristotle held, is to be something. However, Abelard in his Dialectica made a reductio ad absurdum argument against the idea that the copula can express existence.[7]
Similar examples can be found in many other languages; for example, the French and Latin equivalents of I think therefore I am are French: Je pense, donc je '''suis''' and Latin: Cogito ergo '''sum''', where French: suis and Latin: sum are the equivalents of English "am", normally used as copulas. However, other languages prefer a different verb for existential use, as in the Spanish version Spanish; Castilian: Pienso, luego '''existo''' (where the verb Spanish; Castilian: existir is used rather than the copula Spanish; Castilian: ser or Spanish; Castilian: estar).
Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the there is... or there are... type. Languages differ in the way they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an expletive pronoun like the English there, while other languages use different verbs and constructions, like the French French: il y a (which uses parts of the verb French: avoir, not the copula) or the Swedish Swedish: finns (the passive voice of the verb for "to find"). For details, see existential clause.
Relying on a unified theory of copular sentences, it has been proposed that the English there-sentences are subtypes of inverse copular constructions.[8]
Predicates formed using a copula may express identity: that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have the same referent or express an identical concept:
They may also express membership of a class or a subset relationship:
Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, permanent or temporary:
Some languages use different copulas, or different syntax, to denote a permanent, essential characteristic of something versus a temporary state. For examples, see the sections on the Romance languages, Slavic languages and Irish.
In many languages the principal copula is a verb, like English (to) be, German German: sein, Mixtec kuu,[9] Touareg emous, etc. It may inflect for grammatical categories like tense, aspect and mood, like other verbs in the language. Being a very commonly used verb, it is likely that the copula has irregular inflected forms; in English, the verb be has a number of highly irregular (suppletive) forms and has more different inflected forms than any other English verb (am, is, are, was, were, etc.; see English verbs for details).
Other copulas show more resemblances to pronouns. That is the case for Classical Chinese and Guarani, for instance. In highly synthetic languages, copulas are often suffixes, attached to a noun, but they may still behave otherwise like ordinary verbs: Inuktitut: -u- in Inuit languages.
In some other languages, like Beja and Ket, the copula takes the form of suffixes that attach to a noun but are distinct from the person agreement markers used on predicative verbs.[10] This phenomenon is known as nonverbal person agreement (or nonverbal subject agreement), and the relevant markers are always established as deriving from cliticized independent pronouns.
See main article: Zero copula. In some languages, copula omission occurs within a particular grammatical context. For example, speakers of Russian, Indonesian, Turkish, Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew, Geʽez and Quechuan languages consistently drop the copula in present tense: Russian: Russian: я человек, ; Indonesian: Indonesian: saya seorang manusia ; Turkish: Turkish: o insan ; Hungarian: Hungarian: ő ember ; Arabic: Arabic: أنا إنسان, ; Hebrew: Hebrew: אני אדם, ; Geʽez: Geez: አነ ብእሲ/ብእሲ አነ, / / ; Southern Quechua: Quechua: payqa runam . The usage is known generically as the zero copula. In other tenses (sometimes in forms other than third person singular), the copula usually reappears.
Some languages drop the copula in poetic or aphoristic contexts. Examples in English include
Such poetic copula dropping is more pronounced in some languages other than English, like the Romance languages.
In informal speech of English, the copula may also be dropped in general sentences, as in "She a nurse." It is a feature of African-American Vernacular English, but is also used by a variety of other English speakers. An example is the sentence "I saw twelve men, each a soldier."[11]
In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with an article, the copula is understood: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁ οἴκος ἐστὶ μακρός, "the house is large", can be written Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μακρός ὁ οἴκος, "large the house (is)."
In Quechua (Southern Quechua used for the examples), zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular (Quechua: kan): Quechua: Payqa runam ; but: Quechua: (paykuna) runakunam kanku .
In Māori, the zero copula can be used in predicative expressions and with continuous verbs (many of which take a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages) — Maori: He nui te whare, literally, ; Maori: I te tēpu te pukapuka, literally, ; Maori: Nō Ingarangi ia, literally,, Maori: Kei te kai au, literally, .[12]
Alternatively, in many cases, the particle Maori: ko can be used as a copulative (though not all instances of Maori: ko are used as thus, like all other Māori particles, Maori: ko has multiple purposes): Maori: Ko nui te whare ; Maori: Ko te pukapuka kei te tēpu ; Maori: Ko au kei te kai .
However, when expressing identity or class membership, Maori: ko must be used: Maori: Ko tēnei tāku pukapuka ; Maori: Ko Ōtautahi he tāone i Te Waipounamu ; Maori: Ko koe tōku hoa .
When expressing identity, Maori: ko can be placed on either object in the clause without changing the meaning (Maori: ko tēnei tāku pukapuka is the same as Maori: ko tāku pukapuka tēnei) but not on both (Maori: ko tēnei ko tāku pukapuka would be equivalent to saying "it is this, it is my book" in English).
In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person singular and plural: Hungarian: Ő ember/Hungarian: Ők emberek — / ; but: Hungarian: (én) ember vagyok, Hungarian: (te) ember vagy, Hungarian: mi emberek vagyunk, Hungarian: (ti) emberek vagytok . The copula also reappears for stating locations: Hungarian: az emberek a házban vannak, and for stating time: Hungarian: hat óra van . However, the copula may be omitted in colloquial language: Hungarian: hat óra (van) .
Hungarian uses copula Hungarian: lenni for expressing location: Hungarian: Itt van Róbert, but it is omitted in the third person present tense for attribution or identity statements: Hungarian: Róbert öreg ; Hungarian: ők éhesek ; Hungarian: Kati nyelvtudós (but Hungarian: Róbert öreg volt, Hungarian: éhesek voltak, Hungarian: Kati nyelvtudós volt).
In Turkish, both the third person singular and the third person plural copulas are omittable. Turkish: Ali burada and Turkish: Ali burada'''dır''' both mean, and Turkish: Onlar aç and Turkish: Onlar aç'''lar''' both mean . Both of the sentences are acceptable and grammatically correct, but sentences with the copula are more formal.
The Turkish first person singular copula suffix is omitted when introducing oneself. Turkish: Bora ben is grammatically correct, but Turkish: Bora ben'''im''' (same sentence with the copula) is not for an introduction (but is grammatically correct in other cases).
Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example, in the Irish language, Irish: is, the present tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate is a noun. Irish: Ba, the past/conditional, cannot be deleted. If the present copula is omitted, the pronoun (e.g., Irish: é, Irish: í, Irish: iad) preceding the noun is omitted as well.
Sometimes, the term copula is taken to include not only a language's equivalent(s) to the verb be but also other verbs or forms that serve to link a subject to a predicative expression (while adding semantic content of their own). For example, English verbs like become, get, feel, look, taste, smell, and seem can have this function, as in the following sentences (the predicative expression, the complement of the verb, is in italics):
(This usage should be distinguished from the use of some of these verbs as "action" verbs, as in They look at the wall, in which look denotes an action and cannot be replaced by the basic copula are.)
Some verbs have rarer, secondary uses as copular verbs, like the verb fall in sentences like The zebra fell victim to the lion.
These extra copulas are sometimes called "semi-copulas" or "pseudo-copulas."[13] For a list of common verbs of this type in English, see List of English copulae.
See main article: Indo-European copula.
In Indo-European languages, the words meaning to be are sometimes similar to each other. Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for example, the English form is is a cognate of German German: ist, Latin Latin: est, Persian and Russian, even though the Germanic, Italic, Iranian and Slavic language groups split at least 3000 years ago. The origins of the copulas of most Indo-European languages can be traced back to four Proto-Indo-European stems: (), (), and ().
The English copular verb be has eight basic forms (be, am, is, are, being, was, were, been) and five negative forms (ain't (in some dialects), isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't).[14] No other English verb has more than five forms. Additional archaic forms include art, wast, wert, and occasionally beest (as a subjunctive). For more details see English verbs. For the etymology of the various forms, see Indo-European copula.
The main uses of the copula in English are described in the above sections. The possibility of copula omission is mentioned under .
A particular construction found in English (particularly in speech) is the use of two successive copulas when only one appears necessary, as in My point is, is that....[15] The acceptability of this construction is a disputed matter in English prescriptive grammar.
The simple English copula "be" may on occasion be substituted by other verbs with near identical meanings.
In Persian, the verb to be can take the form of either (cognate to English is) or (cognate to be).
| Persian: آسمان آبی '''است''' | |||
| Persian: آسمان آبی '''خواهد بود''' | |||
| Persian: آسمان آبی '''بود''' |
In Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu), the copula Hindi: होना Urdu: {{nq|ہونا can be put into four grammatical aspects (simple, habitual, perfective, and progressive) and each of those four aspects can be put into five grammatical moods (indicative, presumptive, subjunctive, contrafactual, and imperative).[16] Some example sentences using the simple aspect are shown below:
| Hindi | Urdu | Transliteration | English | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Simple Indicative | Present | Hindi: आसमान नीला है। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہے | |||
| Perfect | Hindi: आसमान नीला हुआ। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہوا | ||||
| Imperfect | Hindi: आसमान नीला था। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا تھا | ||||
| Future | Hindi: आसमान नीला होएगा। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہوگا | ||||
| Simple Subjunctive | Present | Hindi: आसमान नीला हो। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہو | |||
| Future | Hindi: आसमान नीला होए। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہوے | ||||
| Simple Presumptive Present | Hindi: आसमान नीला होगा। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہوگا | ||||
| Simple Contrafactual Past | Hindi: आसमान नीला होता। | Urdu: {{nq|آسمان نیلا ہوتا | ||||
Besides the verb Hindi: होना Urdu: {{nq|ہونا, there are three other verbs which can also be used as the copula: Hindi: रहना Urdu: {{nq|رہنا, Hindi: जाना Urdu: {{nq|جانا, and Hindi: आना Urdu: {{nq|آنا .[17] The following table shows the conjugations of the copula Hindi: होना Urdu: {{nq|ہونا in the five grammatical moods in the simple aspect. The transliteration scheme used is ISO 15919.
| Hindustani Copula [Simple Aspect] | |||||||
| Mood | Tense | Gender | Pronouns | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| , | |||||||
| Indicative | Present | ♂ ♀ | |||||
| Perfect | ♂ | ||||||
| ♀ | |||||||
| Imperfect | ♂ | ||||||
| ♀ | |||||||
| Future | ♂ | hoū̃gā | hoegā | hooge | hoẽge | ||
| ♀ | hoū̃gī | hoegī | hoogī | hoẽgī | |||
| Presumptive | All | ♂ | hū̃gā | hogā | hoge | hõge | |
| ♀ | hū̃gī | hogī | hogī | hõgī | |||
| Subjunctive | Present | ♂ ♀ | |||||
| Future | ♂ ♀ | ||||||
| Contrafactual | Past | ♂ | |||||
| ♀ | |||||||
| Imperative | Present | ♂ ♀ | — | ||||
| Future | ♂ ♀ | — | |||||
| Note: the third person singular and plural conjugations are respectivelythe same as the second person intimate and formal conjugations. | |||||||
See main article: Romance copula. Copulas in the Romance languages usually consist of two different verbs that can be translated as "to be", the main one from the Latin Latin: esse (via Vulgar Latin Latin: essere; Latin: esse deriving from *es-), often referenced as Latin: sum (another of the Latin verb's principal parts) and a secondary one from Latin: stare (from *sta-), often referenced as Latin: stō. The resulting distinction in the modern forms is found in all the Iberian Romance languages, and to a lesser extent Italian, but not in French or Romanian. The difference is that the first usually refers to essential characteristics, while the second refers to states and situations, e.g., "Bob is old" versus "Bob is well." A similar division is found in the non-Romance Basque language (viz. Basque: egon and Basque: izan). (The English words just used, "essential" and "state", are also cognate with the Latin infinitives Latin: esse and Latin: stare. The word "stay" also comes from Latin Latin: stare, through Middle French French: estai, stem of Old French French: ester.) In Spanish and Portuguese, the high degree of verbal inflection, plus the existence of two copulas (Spanish; Castilian: ser and Spanish; Castilian: estar), means that there are 105 (Spanish) and 110 (Portuguese)[18] separate forms to express the copula, compared to eight in English and one in Chinese.
| Copula | Language | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Italian | Spanish | Portuguese | English | |||
| align=left | Latin: Sum-derived | Italian: Bob {{noitalic|è | Spanish; Castilian: Bob {{noitalic|es | Portuguese: Bob {{noitalic|é | ||
| align=left | Latin: Sto-derived | Italian: Bob {{noitalic|sta | Spanish; Castilian: Bob {{noitalic|está | Portuguese: Bob {{noitalic|está | ||
In some cases, the verb itself changes the meaning of the adjective/sentence. The following examples are from Portuguese:
| Copula | Example 1 | Example 2 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Portuguese | Spanish | English | Portuguese | Spanish | English | |||
| align=left | Latin: Sum-derived | Portuguese: Bob {{noitalic|é | Spanish; Castilian: Bob {{noitalic|es | Portuguese: Bob {{noitalic|é | Spanish; Castilian: Bob {{noitalic|es | |||
| align=left | Latin: Sto-derived | Portuguese: Bob {{noitalic|está | Spanish; Castilian: Bob {{noitalic|está | Portuguese: Bob {{noitalic|está | Spanish; Castilian: Bob {{noitalic|está | |||
Some Slavic languages make a distinction between essence and state (similar to that discussed in the above section on the Romance languages), by putting a predicative expression denoting a state into the instrumental case, and essential characteristics are in the nominative. This can apply with other copula verbs as well: the verbs for "become" are normally used with the instrumental case.
As noted above under, Russian and other North Slavic languages generally or often omit the copula in the present tense.
In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, there are two copulas, and the syntax is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situations and essential characteristics.
Describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal VSO ordering with the verb Irish: bí. The copula Irish: is is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences.
| align=left valign=top | align=right valign=top | align=left valign=top | |||
| Irish: {{noitalic|Is | (lit.) | ||||
| Irish: {{noitalic|Is | (lit.) |
The word Irish: is is the copula (rhymes with the English word "miss").
The pronoun used with the copula is different from the normal pronoun. For a masculine singular noun, Irish: é is used (for "he" or "it"), as opposed to the normal pronoun Irish: sé; for a feminine singular noun, Irish: í is used (for "she" or "it"), as opposed to normal pronoun Irish: sí; for plural nouns, Irish: iad is used (for "they" or "those"), as opposed to the normal pronoun Irish: siad.[19]
To describe being in a state, condition, place, or act, the verb "to be" is used: Irish: Tá mé ag rith. [20]
The North Levantine Arabic dialect, spoken in Syria and Lebanon, has a negative copula formed by and a suffixed pronoun.[21]
See main article: Chichewa tenses. In Chichewa, a Bantu language spoken mainly in Malawi, a very similar distinction exists between permanent and temporary states as in Spanish and Portuguese, but only in the present tense. For a permanent state, in the 3rd person, the copula used in the present tense is Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: ndi (negative Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: sí):[22] [23]
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''ndi''' mphunzitsi
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''sí''' mphunzitsi
For the 1st and 2nd persons the particle Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: ndi is combined with pronouns, e.g., Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: ine :
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: ine '''ndine''' mphunzitsi
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iwe '''ndiwe''' mphunzitsi
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: ine '''síndine''' mphunzitsi
For temporary states and location, the copula is the appropriate form of the defective verb Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: -li:
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''ali''' bwino
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''sáli''' bwino
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''ali''' ku nyumbá
For the 1st and 2nd persons the person is shown, as normally with Chichewa verbs, by the appropriate pronominal prefix:
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: ine '''ndili''' bwino
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iwe '''uli''' bwino
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: kunyumbá '''kuli''' bwino
In the past tenses, Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: -li is used for both types of copula:
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''analí''' bwino
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: iyé '''ánaalí''' mphunzitsi
In the future, subjunctive, or conditional tenses, a form of the verb Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: khala is used as a copula:
Chichewa; Chewa; Nyanja: máwa '''ákhala''' bwino
Uniquely, the existence of the copulative verbalizer suffix in the Southern Peruvian Aymaran language variety, Muylaq' Aymara, is evident only in the surfacing of a vowel that would otherwise have been deleted because of the presence of a following suffix, lexically prespecified to suppress it. As the copulative verbalizer has no independent phonetic structure, it is represented by the Greek letter ʋ in the examples used in this entry.
Accordingly, unlike in most other Aymaran variants, whose copulative verbalizer is expressed with a vowel-lengthening component, -:, the presence of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara is often not apparent on the surface at all and is analyzed as existing only meta-linguistically. However, in a verb phrase like "It is old", the noun Aymara: thantha does not require the copulative verbalizer: Aymara: thantha-wa .
It is now pertinent to make some observations about the distribution of the copulative verbalizer. The best place to start is with words in which its presence or absence is obvious. When the vowel-suppressing first person simple tense suffix attaches to a verb, the vowel of the immediately preceding suffix is suppressed (in the examples in this subsection, the subscript "c" appears prior to vowel-suppressing suffixes in the interlinear gloss to better distinguish instances of deletion that arise from the presence of a lexically pre-specified suffix from those that arise from other (e.g. phonotactic) motivations). Consider the verb Aymara: sara-, which is inflected for the first person simple tense and so, predictably, loses its final root vowel: Aymara: sar(a)-<sub>c</sub>t-wa .
However, prior to the suffixation of the first person simple suffix Aymara: -<sub>c</sub>t to the same root nominalized with the agentive nominalizer Aymara: -iri, the word must be verbalized. The fact that the final vowel of Aymara: -iri below is not suppressed indicates the presence of an intervening segment, the copulative verbalizer: Aymara: sar(a)-iri-ʋ-t-wa .
It is worthwhile to compare of the copulative verbalizer in Muylaq' Aymara as compared to La Paz Aymara, a variant which represents this suffix with vowel lengthening. Consider the near-identical sentences below, both translations of "I have a small house" in which the nominal root Aymara: uta-ni is verbalized with the copulative verbalizer, but the correspondence between the copulative verbalizer in these two variants is not always a strict one-to-one relation.[24]
| align=left | align=right | align=left | |||
| La Paz Aymara: | Aymara: ma: jisk'a uta-ni-:-<sub>c</sub>t(a)-wa | ||||
| Muylaq' Aymara: | Aymara: ma isk'a uta-ni-ʋ-<sub>c</sub>t-wa |
As in English, the verb "to be" is irregular in Georgian (a Kartvelian language); different verb roots are employed in different tenses. The roots,,, and (past participle) are used in the present tense, future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively. Examples:
In the last two examples (perfective and pluperfect), two roots are used in one verb compound. In the perfective tense, the root Georgian: qop (which is the expected root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root Georgian: ar, which is the root for the present tense. In the pluperfective tense, again, the root Georgian: qop is followed by the past tense root Georgian: qav. This formation is very similar to German (an Indo-European language), where the perfect and the pluperfect are expressed in the following way:
| align=left | align=right | align=left | |||
| German: Ich '''bin''' Lehrer '''gewesen'''. | , literally | ||||
| German: Ich '''war''' Lehrer '''gewesen'''. | , literally |
Here, German: gewesen is the past participle of German: sein in German. In both examples, as in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the pluperfect aspects.
Haitian Creole, a French-based creole language, has three forms of the copula: Haitian; Haitian Creole: se, Haitian; Haitian Creole: ye, and the zero copula, no word at all (the position of which will be indicated with Ø, just for purposes of illustration).
Although no textual record exists of Haitian-Creole at its earliest stages of development from French, Haitian; Haitian Creole: se is derived from French pronounced as /fr/ (written French: c'est), which is the normal French contraction of pronounced as /fr/ (that, written French: ce) and the copula pronounced as /fr/ (is, written French: est) (a form of the verb French: être).
The derivation of Haitian; Haitian Creole: ye is less obvious; but we can assume that the French source was pronounced as /fr/ ("he/it is", written French: il est), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly pronounced as pronounced as /fr/ (typically written French: y est).
The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it is thought to be an innovation from the early days when Haitian-Creole was first developing as a Romance-based pidgin. Latin also sometimes used a zero copula.
Which of Haitian; Haitian Creole: se/Haitian; Haitian Creole: ye/Ø is used in any given copula clause depends on complex syntactic factors that we can superficially summarize in the following four rules:
1. Use Ø (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences where the complement is an adjective phrase, prepositional phrase, or adverb phrase:
2. Use Haitian; Haitian Creole: se when the complement is a noun phrase. But, whereas other verbs come after any tense/mood/aspect particles (like Haitian; Haitian Creole: pa to mark negation, or Haitian; Haitian Creole: te to explicitly mark past tense, or Haitian; Haitian Creole: ap to mark progressive aspect), Haitian; Haitian Creole: se comes before any such particles:
3. Use Haitian; Haitian Creole: se where French and English have a dummy "it" subject:
4. Finally, use the other copula form Haitian; Haitian Creole: ye in situations where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end of a phrase:
The above is, however, only a simplified analysis.[25] [26]
The Japanese copula (most often translated into English as an inflected form of "to be") is unique among verbs in Japanese. It is highly irregular, and in several ways behaves in ways other verbs do not; such as requiring a separate relativised form in some circumstances, and acting simply as a marker of formality/politeness with no predication force in some circumstances. In the most basic case, it behaves like a normal verb with irregular forms, which (like most copulas crosslinguistically) takes a non-case-marked complement instead of an object.
As with all verbs in Japanese, it is necessary to mark the speaker's implied social relationship to the addressee by the choice of verb form. The following two sentences differ only in the fact that the first is appropriate only between decently close friends or family, or said by someone of significantly higher social status than the listener, and the second is only appropriate outside of such circumstances.
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| Japanese: あれはホテルだ。 | |||||
| Japanese: あれはホテルです。 |
Japanese has two classes of words which correspond to adjectives in English, one of which requires a copula to become a predicate and one of which does not.
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| Japanese: このビールはおいしい。 | |||||
| Japanese: このビールは豪華だ。 | |||||
| Invalid, as is its own predicate and does not need a copula to make it a predicate | ||||
However, the polite copula is used as a means to mark the self-predicating class of adjectives as grammatically formal, and thus the formal equivalent of is . In these situations, the copula is not serving as an actual predication device; it is only a means to supply formality marking.
The non-self-predicating class of adjectives is the one place in modern Japanese where a separate relativiser form appears; these require the form in order to modify nouns.
Etymologically the copula is a reduced form of, which effectively means 'exists as'; in formal situations or its formal form can appear in place of or, and in certain situations other forms of may be appropriate (such as /). Nonstandard forms such as Japanese: や in Kansai and Japanese: じゃ in much of the rest of western Japan (see map above) are due to various dialects reducing differently than the Kantō-based standard form did.
The negative form of the copula is generally or its reduced form (or in formal situations, substitute for). This includes the topic marker, due to negative copula sentences typically implying some kind of contrastive topic-like force on the complement. can occur in relative clauses, where information structure marking might be odd, but is also a general negative copula and would be sensible still in any situation might be used.
Many sentences in Japanese are structurally a headless relative clause nominalised by (or its reduced form) and then predicated with a copula; the structure is analogous to something like English it's that.... This structure is used to indicate that the statement is intended to answer a question or explain confusion a listener may have had (though the question it answers may not have ever been overtly spoken). This has largely been incorporated into Japanese's sentence-final particle system, and is far more common than the equivalent English structure.
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| Japanese: そこにある。 | |||||
| Japanese: そこにあるんだ。 |
Similarly, has also been recruited into the sentence-final particle system, and is used to mark a sentence that the speaker should have been decently obvious to the listener, or to indicate that the speaker is surprised to find that the sentence is true. In this role it can cooccur with an actual predicative, but not with the positive ; is omitted in such sentences.
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| Japanese: 明日じゃない！ | (differs from "It's not tomorrow" only by intonation; as a sentence-final particle is not a separate phonological unit while as a negative copula it is) | ||||
| Japanese: 明日じゃないじゃない！ |
For sentences with predicate nominatives, the copula Korean: 이 is added to the predicate nominative (with no space in between).
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| Korean: 바나나는 과일이다. |
Some adjectives (usually colour adjectives) are nominalized and used with the copula Korean: 이 .
1. Without the copula Korean: 이 :
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| Korean: 장미는 빨개요. |
2. With the copula Korean: 이 :
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| Korean: 장미는 빨간색이다. |
Some Korean adjectives are derived using the copula. Separating these articles and nominalizing the former part will often result in a sentence with a related, but different meaning. Using the separated sentence in a situation where the un-separated sentence is appropriate is usually acceptable as the listener can decide what the speaker is trying to say using the context.
See also: Chinese adjectives, Chinese particles and Chinese grammar.
In Chinese, both states and qualities are, in general, expressed with stative verbs (SV) with no need for a copula, e.g., in Chinese, "to be tired" (Chinese: 累), "to be hungry" (Chinese: 饿), "to be located at" (Chinese: 在), "to be stupid" (Chinese: 笨) and so forth. A sentence can consist simply of a pronoun and such a verb: for example, Chinese: 我饿 . Usually, however, verbs expressing qualities are qualified by an adverb (meaning "very", "not", "quite", etc.); when not otherwise qualified, they are often preceded by Chinese: 很, which in other contexts means "very", but in this use often has no particular meaning.
Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g., "This is my sister") use the copular verb "to be": . This is used frequently; for example, instead of having a verb meaning "to be Chinese", the usual expression is "to be a Chinese person" (; ;). This is sometimes called an equative verb. Another possibility is for the complement to be just a noun modifier (ending in), the noun being omitted:
Before the Han dynasty, the character served as a demonstrative pronoun meaning "this" (this usage survives in some idioms and proverbs.) Some linguists believe that developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in classical Chinese we can say, for example: "George W. Bush, this president of the United States" meaning "George W. Bush is the president of the United States).[27] The character appears to be formed as a compound of characters with the meanings of "early" and "straight."
Another use of in modern Chinese is in combination with the modifier to mean "yes" or to show agreement. For example:
Question: Chinese: 你的汽车是不是红色的？ Response: Chinese: 是的, meaning "Yes", or Chinese: 不是, meaning "No."
(A more common way of showing that the person asking the question is correct is by simply saying "right" or "correct", Chinese: 对 ; the corresponding negative answer is Chinese: 不对 .)
Yet another use of is in the shì...(de) construction, which is used to emphasize a particular element of the sentence; see .
In Hokkien acts as the copula, and pronounced as //z// is the equivalent in Wu Chinese. Cantonese uses instead of ; similarly, Hakka uses .
In Siouan languages like Lakota, in principle almost all words—according to their structure—are verbs. So not only (transitive, intransitive and so-called "stative") verbs but even nouns often behave like verbs and do not need to have copulas.
For example, the word wičháša refers to a man, and the verb is expressed as wimáčhaša/winíčhaša/wičháša . Yet there also is a copula héčha that in most cases is used: wičháša hemáčha/heníčha/héčha .
In order to express the statement, one has to say pezuta wičháša hemáčha. But, in order to express that that person is THE doctor (say, that had been phoned to help), one must use another copula iyé :
In order to refer to space (e.g., Robert is in the house), various verbs are used, e.g., yaŋkÁ (lit.,) for humans, or háŋ/hé for inanimate objects of a certain shape. "Robert is in the house" could be translated as Robert thimáhel yaŋké (yeló), whereas "There's one restaurant next to the gas station" translates as Owótethipi wígli-oínažiŋ kiŋ hél isákhib waŋ hé.
The constructed language Lojban has two words that act similar to a copula in natural languages. The clause Lojban: me ... me'u turns whatever follows it into a predicate that means to be (among) what it follows. For example, Lojban: me la .bob. (me'u) means "to be Bob", and Lojban: me le ci mensi (me'u) means "to be one of the three sisters". Another one is Lojban: du, which is itself a predicate that means all its arguments are the same thing (equal).[28] One word which is often confused for a copula in Lojban, but is not one, is Lojban: cu. It merely indicates that the word which follows is the main predicate of the sentence. For example, Lojban: lo pendo be mi cu zgipre means "my friend is a musician", but the word Lojban: cu does not correspond to English is; instead, the word Lojban: zgipre, which is a predicate, corresponds to the entire phrase "is a musician". The word Lojban: cu is used to prevent Lojban: lo pendo be mi zgipre, which would mean "the friend-of-me type of musician".[29]