Arcade video game explained

An arcade video game takes player input from its controls, processes it through electrical or computerized components, and displays output to an electronic monitor or similar display. All arcade video games are coin-operated or accept other means of payment, housed in an arcade cabinet, and located in amusement arcades alongside other kinds of arcade games. Until the early 2000s, arcade video games were the largest and most technologically advanced segment of the video game industry.

Early prototypical entries Galaxy Game and Computer Space in 1971 established the principle operations for arcade games, and Atari's Pong in 1972 is recognized as the first successful commercial arcade video game. Improvements in computer technology and gameplay design led to a golden age of arcade video games, the exact dates of which are debated but range from the late 1970s to the early 1980s. This golden age includes Space Invaders, Pac-Man, and Donkey Kong. The arcade industry had a resurgence from the early 1990s to mid-2000s, including Street Fighter II, Mortal Kombat, and Dance Dance Revolution, but ultimately declined in the Western world as competing home video game consoles such as the Sony PlayStation and Microsoft Xbox increased in their graphics and gameplay capability and decreased in cost. Nevertheless, Japan, China, and South Korea retain a strong arcade industry in the present day.[1]

History

See main article: History of arcade video games.

Games of skill were popular amusement-park midway attractions from the 19th century on. With the introduction of electricity and coin-operated machines, they facilitated a viable business. When pinball machines with electric lights and displays were introduced in 1933 (but without the user-controller flippers which would not be invented until 1947) these machines were seen as games of luck. Numerous states and cities treated them as amoral playthings for rebellious young people, and banned them into the 1960s and 1970s.[2]

Electro-mechanical games (EM games) appeared in arcades in the mid-20th century. Following Sega's EM game Periscope (1966), the arcade industry experienced a "technological renaissance" driven by "audio-visual" EM novelty games, establishing the arcades as a suitable environment for the introduction of commercial video games in the early 1970s.[3] In the late 1960s, college student Nolan Bushnell had a part-time job at an arcade where he became familiar with EM games such as Chicago Coin's racing game Speedway (1969), watching customers play and helping to maintain the machinery, while learning the game business.[4]

The early mainframe game Spacewar! (1962) inspired the first commercial arcade video game, Computer Space (1971), created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney and released by Nutting Associates.[5] It was demonstrated at the Amusement & Music Operators Association (AMOA) show in October 1971.[6] Another Spacewar-inspired coin-operated video game, Galaxy Game, was demonstrated at Stanford University in November 1971. Bushnell and Dabney followed their Computer Space success to create - with the help of Allan Alcorn - a table-tennis game, Pong, released in 1972. Pong became a commercial success, leading numerous other coin-op manufacturers to enter the market.[5]

See main article: Golden age of arcade video games.

The video game industry transitioned from discrete integrated circuitry to programmable microprocessors in the mid-1970s, starting with Gun Fight in 1975. The arcade industry entered a "Golden Age" in 1978 with the release of Taito's Space Invaders, which introduced many novel gameplay features - including a scoreboard. From 1978 to 1982, several other major arcade-games from Namco, Atari, Williams Electronics, Stern Electronics, and Nintendo were all considered blockbusters, particularly Namco's Pac-Man (1980), which became a fixture in popular culture. Across North America and Japan, dedicated video-game arcades appeared and arcade-game cabinets appeared in many smaller storefronts. By 1981, the arcade video-game industry was worth in the US.[7]

The novelty of arcade games waned sharply after 1982 due to several factors, including market saturation of arcades and arcade games, a moral panic over video games (similar to fears raised over pinball machines in the decades prior), and the 1983 video game crash as the home-console market impacted arcades. The arcade market had recovered by 1986, with the help of software-conversion kits, the arrival of popular beat 'em up games (such as Kung-Fu Master (1984) and Renegade (1986-1987)), and advanced motion simulator games (such as Sega's "taikan" games including Hang-On (1985), Space Harrier (1985), and Out Run (1986)). However, the growth of home video-game systems such as the Nintendo Entertainment System led to another brief arcade decline toward the end of the 1980s.[8]

Arcade games continued to improve with the development of technology and of gameplay. In the early 1990s, the release of Capcom's Street Fighter II established the modern style of fighting games and led to a number of similar games such as Mortal Kombat, Fatal Fury, Killer Instinct, Virtua Fighter, and Tekken, creating a new renaissance in the arcades.[9] [10] Another factor was realism,[11] including the "3D Revolution" from 2D and pseudo-3D graphics to "true" real-time 3D polygon graphics.[12] [13] This was largely driven by a technological arms-race between Sega and Namco.[14] During the early 1990s games such as Sega's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter popularized 3D-polygon technology in arcades. 3D graphics later became popular in console and computer games by the mid-1990s,[15] though arcade systems such as the Sega Model 3 remained considerably more advanced than home systems in the late 1990s.[16] [17] Until about 1996, arcade video-games had remained the largest segment of the global video-game industry. Arcades declined in the late 1990s, surpassed by the console market for the first time around 1997–1998.[18]

Since the 2000s, arcade games have taken different routes globally. In the United States, arcades have become niche markets as they compete with the home-console market, and they have adapted other business models, such as providing other entertainment options or adding prize redemptions.[19] In Japan, where arcades continue to flourish, games like Dance Dance Revolution and The House of the Dead aim to deliver tailored experiences that players cannot easily have at home.[20]

Technology

See also: Arcade cabinet, List of Sega arcade system boards and Sprite (computer graphics).

Virtually all modern arcade games (other than the very traditional fair midway) make extensive use of solid state electronics, integrated circuits, and monitor screens, all installed inside an arcade cabinet.

With the exception of Galaxy Game and Computer Space, which were built around small form-factor mainframe computers, the first arcade games are based on combinations of multiple discrete logic chips, such as transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips. Designing an arcade game was more about the combination of these TTL chips and other electronic components to achieve the desired effect on screen. More complex gameplay required significantly more TTL components to achieve this result. By the mid-1970s, the first inexpensive programmable microprocessors had arrived on the market. The first microprocessor-based video game is Midway's Gun Fight in 1975 (a conversion of Taito's Western Gun), and with the advent of Space Invaders and the golden era, microprocessor-based games became typical.[21] Early arcade games were also designed around raster graphics displayed on a cathode-ray tube (CRT) display. Many games of the late 1970s and early 1980s use special displays that rendered vector graphics, though these waned by the mid-1980s as display technology on CRTs improved.[22] Prior to the availability of color CRT or vector displays, some arcade cabinets have a combination of angled monitor positioning, one-way mirrors, and clear overlays to simulate colors and other graphics onto the gameplay field.[23]

Coin-operated arcade video games from the 1990s to the 2000s generally use custom hardware often with multiple CPUs, highly specialized sound and graphics chips, and the latest in expensive computer graphics display technology. This allows more complex graphics and sound than contemporary video game consoles or personal computers. Many arcade games since the 2000s run on modified video game console hardware (such as the Sega NAOMI or Triforce) or gaming PC components (such as the Taito Type X). Many arcade games have more immersive and realistic game controls than PC or console games. This includes specialized ambiance or control accessories such as fully enclosed dynamic cabinets with force feedback controls, dedicated lightguns, rear-projection displays, reproductions of automobile or airplane cockpits, motorcycle or horse-shaped controllers, or highly dedicated controllers such as dancing mats and fishing rods. These accessories are usually too bulky, expensive, and specialized to be used with typical home PCs and consoles. Arcade makers experiment with virtual reality technology. Arcades have progressed from using coins as credits to smart cards that hold the virtual currency of credits.

Modern arcade cabinets use flat panel displays instead of cathode-ray tubes. Internet services such as ALL.Net, NESiCAxLive, e-Amusement and NESYS, allow the cabinets to download updates or new games, do online multiplayer gameplay, save progress, unlock content, or earn credits.

Genres

Many arcade games have short levels, simple and intuitive control schemes, and rapidly increasing difficulty. The classic formula for a successful arcade video game is "easy to learn, difficult to master"[24] along with a "multiple life, progressively difficult level" paradigm.[25] This is due to the environment of the arcade, where the player is essentially renting the game for as long as their in-game avatar can stay alive or until they run out of tokens. Games on consoles or PCs can be referred to as "arcade games" if they share these qualities, or are direct ports of arcade games.

Arcade racing games often have sophisticated motion simulator arcade cabinets,[26] [27] a simplified physics engine, and short learning time when compared with more realistic racing simulations. Cars can turn sharply without braking or understeer, and the AI rivals are sometimes programmed so they are always near the player with a rubberband effect. Other types of arcade-style games include music games (particularly rhythm games), and mobile and casual games with intuitive controls and short sessions.

Action

The term "arcade game" can refer to an action video game designed to play similarly to an arcade game with frantic, addictive gameplay.[28] The focus of arcade action games is on the user's reflexes, and many feature very little puzzle-solving, complex thinking, or strategy skills. These include fighting games often played with an arcade controller, beat 'em up games including fast-paced hack and slash games, and light gun rail shooters and "bullet hell" shooters with intuitive controls and rapidly increasing difficulty.

Many arcade combat flight simulation games have sophisticated hydraulic motion simulator cabinets,[26] [27] and simplified physics and handling. Arcade flight games are meant to have an easy learning curve, in order to preserve their action component. Increasing numbers of console flight video games, such as Crimson Skies, Ace Combat, and Secret Weapons Over Normandy indicate the falling of manual-heavy flight sim popularity in favor of instant arcade flight action.[29]

A modern subgenre of action games called "hack and slash" or "character action games" represent an evolution of traditional arcade action games, and are sometimes considered a subgenre of beat 'em up brawlers. This subgenre of games was largely defined by Hideki Kamiya, creator of the Devil May Cry and Bayonetta franchises.[30]

Industry

Arcade games are found in restaurants, bowling alleys, college campuses, video rental shops, dormitories, laundromats, movie theaters, supermarkets, shopping malls, airports, and other retail environments. They are popular in public places where people are likely to have free time.[31]

Their profitability is expanded by the popularity of conversions of arcade games for home-based platforms. In 1997, WMS Industries (parent company of Midway Games) reported that if more than 5,000 arcade units are sold, at least 100,000 home version units will be sold.[32]

The American Amusement Machine Association (AAMA) is a trade association established in 1981[33] that represents the American coin-operated amusement machine industry,[34] including 120 arcade game distributors and manufacturers.[35] The Japan Amusement Machine and Marketing Association (JAMMA) represents the Japanese arcade industry. Arcade machines may have standardized connectors or interfaces such as JAMMA, or JVS, that help with quick replacement of game systems or boards in arcade cabinets. The game boards or arcade boards may themselves allow for games to be replaced via game cartridges or discs.

Conversions, emulators, and recreations

Prior to the 2000s, successful video games were often converted to a home video game console or home computer. Many of the initial Atari VCS games, for example, were conversions of Atari's success arcade games. Arcade game manufacturers that were not in the home console or computer business found licensing of their games to console manufacturers to be a successful business model, as console manufacturer competitors would vie for rights to more popular games. Coleco famously bested Atari to secure the rights to convert Nintendo's Donkey Kong, which it subsequently included as a pack-in game for the ColecoVision to challenge the VCS.[36]

Arcade conversions typically had to make concessions for the lower computational power and capabilities of the home console, such as limited graphics or alterations in gameplay. Such conversions had mixed results. The Atari VCS conversion of Space Invaders was considered the VCS's killer application, helping to quadruple the VCS sales in 1980.[37] In contrast, the VCS conversion of Pac-Man in 1982 was highly criticized for technical flaws due to VCS limitations such as flickering ghosts and simplified gameplay. Though Pac-Man was the best-selling game on the VCS, it eroded consumer confidence in Atari's games and partially contributed to the 1983 crash.[38]

The need for arcade conversions began to wane as arcade game manufacturers like Nintendo, Sega, and SNK entered the home console market and used similar technology within their home consoles as found at the arcade, negating the need to simplify the game. Concessions still may be made for a home release; notably, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System conversion of Mortal Kombat removed much of the gore from the arcade version to meet Nintendo's quality control standards.[39]

Exact copies of arcade video games can be run through emulators such as MAME on modern devices. An emulator is an application that translates foreign software onto a modern system, in real-time. Emulated games appeared legally and commercially on the Macintosh in 1994[40] [41] with Williams floppy disks, Sony PlayStation in 1996, and Sega Saturn in 1997 with CD-ROM compilations such as Williams Arcade's Greatest Hits and , and on the PlayStation 2 and GameCube with DVD-ROM compilations such as Midway Arcade Treasures. Arcade games are downloaded and emulated through the Nintendo Wii Virtual Console service starting in 2009.

Using emulation, companies like Arcade1Up have produced at-scale or reduced-scale recreations of arcade cabinets using modern technology, such as LCD monitors and lightweight construction. These cabinets are typically designed to resemble the original arcade game cabinets, but may also support multiple related games. These cabinets can be offered in diverse and miniaturized styles, such as table-mounted and wall-mounted versions.[42]

Highest-grossing

See also: Golden age of arcade video games.

For arcade games, success is usually judged by either the number of arcade hardware units sold to operators, or the amount of revenue generated. The revenue can include the coin drop earnings from coins (such as quarters, dollars, or 100 yen coins) inserted into machines,[43] and/or the earnings from hardware sales with each unit costing thousands of dollars. Most of the revenue figures listed below are incomplete as they only include hardware sales revenue, due to a lack of available data for coin drop earnings which typically account for the majority of a hit arcade game's gross revenue. This list only includes arcade games that either sold more than 10,000 hardware units or generated a revenue of more than . Most of the games listed were released between the golden age of arcade video games (1978–1984) and the 1990s.

GameRelease yearHardware units soldEstimated gross revenue
(US$ without inflation)		Estimated gross revenue
(US$ with inflation)[44]
Pac-Man1980400,000 (until 1982)[45] (until 1982)[46] [47]
Space Invaders1978750,000 (until 1979)[48] (until 1982)[49] $
Street Fighter II1991221,000+ (until 1999)[50] $
The King of Fighters '971997150,000 (until 1998)[51]
Donkey Kong1981132,000 (until 1982) (until 1982)
(US hardware sales)[52] 		$
(US hardware sales)
Ms. Pac-Man1982125,000 (until 1988)[53] [54] [55]
Asteroids1979 (until 2001)[56] (until 1991)[57] [58] $
Defender1981 (until 2020)[59] (until 2020)$
Print Club (Purikura)1995 [60] [61] $
Centipede1981 (until 1991)[62]
(hardware sales until 1991)		$
(hardware sales)
Galaxian1979 (in the US until 1982)[63]
Virtua Fighter1993 [64]
Virtua Fighter 21994 [65]
Tekken 21995 [66]
Starhorse22005 (until 2009) (until 2011)
(Fifth Expansion)		$
(Fifth Expansion)
Hyper Olympic (Track & Field)1983 [67]
Tekken 31996 [68]
Donkey Kong Jr.1982 (1982 in the US)
Mr. Do!1982 (1982 in the US)[69]
Karate Champ1984 (in the US until 1985)[70]
Out Run1986 (until 1994)[71] [72]
Final Fight1989 (until 1991)[73]
Virtua Fighter 31996
NBA Jam1993 (until 2013)[74] (until 2013)[75]
World Club Champion Football2002 (until 2009) (until 2012)$
Mortal Kombat II199327,000 (until 2002) (until 2002)[76] $
Frogger1981[77] $
(US hardware sales)
Tempest1981 (until 1983)
(hardware sales until 1991)		$
(hardware sales)
Q*bert1982 (until 2001)[78]
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles1989 (US & EU until May 1990)[79] [80]
Beatmania1997 (until 2000)[81] (until 1998)
(Japan hardware sales)		$
(Japan hardware sales)
Mortal Kombat199224,000 (until 2002)[82] (until 2002)$
1994[83]
1982 (until 1983)
Pole Position1982 (in the US until 1983)[84] (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Dig Dug1982 (in the US until 1983) (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Popeye1982 (in the US until 1982)[85]
Vs. Super Mario Bros.1986 (1986)[86]
Pump It Up1999 (until 2005)[87]
Tekken Tag Tournament1999 (until 2000)[88]
Jungle Hunt1982 (in the US until 1983)[89]
Raiden1990[90]
Killer Instinct1994[91] +[92] $ million+
Pokémon Mezastar2020+ (until 2021)[93] +
Dragon's Lair1983 (until 1983)[94] [95]
(hardware sales until 1983)		$
(hardware sales)
Asteroids Deluxe1981 (until 1999)[96]
(hardware sales until 1999)		$
(hardware sales)
Missile Command1980 (until 2010)[97]
(hardware sales until 1991)		$
(hardware sales)
Berzerk1980 (until 1981)[98]
Scramble1981 (until 1981)
Champion Baseball1983 (in Japan until June 1983)[99]
2003 (until 2005)[100] (until 2007)$
Battlezone1980 (until 1999)
(hardware sales until 1999)		$
(hardware sales)
Stargate1981 (until 1983)
Space Duel1982 (until 1991)
Mahjong Fight Club 32004 (until 2004)[101]
Super Cobra1981 (until 1981)
Capcom Bowling1988 [102]
Sega Rally Championship1994[103]
2004 (until 2006)[104] [105] (until 2007)$
Double Dragon1987 (US in 1988)[106]
Street Fighter1987 (until 1991)[107]
Dance Dance Revolution199810,000+ [108]
Wheels / Wheels II (Speed Race)1974 (1975 in the US)[109]
Gee Bee1978[110]
Big Buck Hunter Pro2006 (until 2009)[111] [112]
World Club Champion Football: Intercontinental Clubs2008 (until 2009) (until 2012)$
Pokémon Battrio2007+ (until 2012)$+
StarHorse3 Season I: A New Legend Begins2011 (until 2012)$
Pokémon Tretta2012+ (until 2014)$+
Border Break2009 (until 2009)[113] (until 2012)$
Tron1982 (in the US until 1982)[114] (until 1983)[115]
Sengoku Taisen2010 (until 2012)$
Pokémon Ga-Olé2016+ (until 2018)$+
2007 (until 2008)$
Samba de Amigo1999 (until 2000)[116] (until 2000)$
Sangokushi Taisen 32007 (until 2011)$
Pong1972[117] [118] (until 1973)[119] $
Lord of Vermilion2008 (until 2008)$
Sega Network Mahjong MJ42008 (until 2009) (until 2010)$
Kangaroo1982 (until 1983) (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Hard Drivin'1989 (until 1989) (until 1989)$
Gauntlet1985 (until 1985) (until 1985)$
Sega Network Mahjong MJ52011 (until 2012)$
Millipede1982 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Race Drivin'1990 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Breakout1976 (until 1981)[120]
(hardware sales until 1981)		$
Time Traveler1991 (until 1991)[121] $
Space Ace1984 (until 1984)$
Xevious1982 (in the US until 1983) (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Atari Football1978 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Final Lap1987 (in the US until 1988) (until 1988)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Paperboy1984 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Star Wars1983 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Sprint 21976 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Championship Sprint1986 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Pole Position II1983 (in the US until 1983) (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Sea Wolf1976 (until 2000)[122]
Lunar Lander1979 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Super Sprint1986 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Marble Madness1984 (until 1985)[123] (until 1991)$
Rolling Thunder1986 (in the US until 1987) (until 1987)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Arabian1983 (in the US until 1983) (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)

Franchises

See also: List of best-selling video game franchises.

These are the combined hardware sales of at least two or more arcade games that are part of the same franchise. This list only includes franchises that have sold at least 5,000 hardware units or grossed at least $10 million revenues.

FranchiseOriginal release yearTotal hardware units soldEstimated gross revenue
(US$ without inflation)		Estimated gross revenue
(US$ with inflation)
Pac-Man1980526,412 (until 1988) (until 1982)[124]
Space Invaders1978750,000 (until 1980) (until 1982)$
Street Fighter1987500,000 (until 2002)[125] [126] (until 1999)$
Pac-Man clones1980300,000 (until 2002)[127]
Street Fighter clones1987200,000+
Mario1981190,800 (until 1983) (until 1982)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Donkey Kong1981167,000 (until 1983) (until 1982)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Asteroids1979136,437 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Virtua Fighter1993
Golden Tee Golf1989100,000 (until 2011)[128]
Data Carddass2005100,000 (until 2012)[129]
Tekken1994
Defender1981 (until 2020) (until 2020)$
Centipede1981 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Mortal Kombat1992 (until 2002) (until 200)$
Galaxian1979 (in the US until 1988)
Pokémon arcade games2007+ (until 2021)$+
Starhorse2000 (until 2009) (until 2012)$
Bemani1997 (until 2000) (until 1998)
(Beatmania hardware sales in Japan)		$
(Beatmania hardware sales in Japan)
Big Buck2000 (until 2010)
Mr. Do!1982 (in the US until 1982)
2007 (until 2008)$
Lord of Vermilion2008 (until 2008)$
Scramble1981 (until 1981)
Sega Network Mahjong2000 (until 2006) (until 2012)$
Darkstalkers1994
Pole Position1982 (in the US until 1983) (until 1988)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Dig Dug1982 (in the US until 1983) (until 1983)
(US hardware sales)		$
(US hardware sales)
Pump It Up1999 (until 2005)
Breakout1976 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Star Wars1983 (until 1991) (until 1983)$
Sprint1976 (until 1999) (until 1999)$
Mushiking2003 (until 2005) (until 2007)$
Sea Wolf1976 (until 2000)
Mahjong Fight Club2002 (until 2004)
Gauntlet1985 (until 1991) (until 1991)$
Love and Berry2004 (until 2006) (until 2007)$
Sangokushi Taisen2005 (until 2008) (until 2012)$
Pong1972 (until 1973)$
Hard Drivin'1989 (until 1991) (until 1991)
Samba de Amigo1999 (until 2000) (until 2000)$
Border Break2009 (until 2009) (until 2012)$
World Club Champion Football2012 (until 2015) (until 2012)$

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Why Japan's arcades are its game industry's cutting-edge labs. 2016-12-06. VentureBeat. en-US. 2019-05-16. 9 December 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161209092438/https://venturebeat.com/2016/12/06/even-in-decline-japans-arcades-are-critically-important-to-japanese-game-makers/. live.
  2. Book: Kocurek, Carly. Coin-Operated Americans: Rebooting Boyhood at the Video Game Arcade. 2015. 9780816691821. 91. University of Minnesota Press.
  3. Book: Smith . Alexander . They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982 . 19 November 2019 . . 978-0-429-75261-2 . 119–20, 188–91 . 21 May 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222408/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cxy_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT119 . live .
  4. The Great Videogame Swindle? . . 23 . . November 1996 . 211–229 .
  5. Web site: For Amusement Only: the life and death of the American arcade . Laura . June . January 16, 2013 . August 13, 2020 . . 6 October 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081005/http://www.theverge.com/2013/1/16/3740422/the-life-and-death-of-the-american-arcade-for-amusement-only . live .
  6. Book: Smith, Alexander . They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry . 1: 1971 – 1982 . . November 27, 2019 . 978-1-138-38990-8 . 129–135.
  7. News: Can Lasers Save Video Arcades? . . 3 February 1984 . Last year, arcade game revenues were approximately $5 billion, compared to $8 billion in 1981 and $7 billion in 1982. . 17 April 2012 . 14 May 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130514005512/http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=PI&s_site=philly&p_multi=PI&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB29715971BCAA2&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM . live .
  8. Web site: Coin-Op history – 1975 to 1997 – from the pages of RePlay . RePlay . 1998 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/19980428063132/http://replaymag.com/history.htm . 28 April 1998 . April 21, 2021 .
  9. Book: Compton, Shanna . Gamers: writers, artists & programmers on the pleasures of pixels. Soft Skull Press. 2004. 1-932360-57-3. 119.
  10. Web site: Insert Coin Here: Getting a Fighting Chance. Jay . Carter. Electronic Games. July 1993. 10.
  11. Perry . Dave . Dave Perry . Arcades: Ready for a Renaissance? . . November 1994 . 7 (January 1995) . . 6 .
  12. Book: Williams . Andrew . History of Digital Games: Developments in Art, Design and Interaction . 16 March 2017 . . 978-1-317-50381-1 . 143–6, 152–4.
  13. Web site: Spencer . Spanner . The Tao of Beat-'em-ups (part 2) . https://web.archive.org/web/20110715094144/http://www.eurogamer.net/articles/a_taoofbeatemups_pt2_retro . July 15, 2011 . . February 12, 2008 . March 18, 2009.
  14. Thorpe . Nick . The 90s: The Decade of Rivalries . . March 2014 . 127 . 32–5 .
  15. Web site: Virtua Racing – Arcade (1992) . 15 Most Influential Games of All Time . . 14 March 2001. dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20111213013602/http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/15influential/p13_01.html . 13 December 2011.
  16. News: Virtua Fighter 3. Computer and Video Games. May 1996. 174. 10–1.
  17. Web site: Second Hand Smoke – One up, two down . . October 22, 1999 . 2018-01-08 . 22 February 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150222220103/http://www.thg.ru/smoke/19991022/print.html . live .
  18. Web site: Peak Video Game? Top Analyst Sees Industry Slumping in 2019 . Yuki . Naramura . January 23, 2019 . January 29, 2019 . . subscription . https://web.archive.org/web/20190130053850/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-23/peak-video-game-top-analyst-sees-industry-slumping-in-2019 . 30 January 2019 . live .
  19. Web site: Fuller. Brad. Awakening the Arcade. 21 September 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20111003012240/http://blogs.oreilly.com/digitalmedia/2005/11/awakening-the-arcade.html . 3 October 2011 . dead.
  20. Web site: Why Arcades Haven't Died in Japan. Ashcraft. Brian. Kotaku. 15 February 2017. en-US. 2022-07-25. What has remained constant is that Japanese arcades have always aimed to offer experiences that players could not get at home. This is a constant throughout Japanese arcade history.. 22 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190422182306/https://kotaku.com/why-arcades-havent-died-in-japan-1792338461. live.
  21. Book: Kent, Steven L.. The Ultimate History of Video Games: Volume Two: from Pong to Pokemon and beyond...the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world. 16 June 2010. Crown/Archetype. 978-0-307-56087-2. 26 May 2021. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222410/https://books.google.com/books?id=PTrcTeAqeaEC&pg=PT762. live.
  22. Book: The video game explosion: a history ... - Mark J. P. Wolf - Google Books . 9780313338687 . 2011-11-22 . Wolf . Mark J. P. . 2008 . Abc-Clio . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222410/https://books.google.com/books?id=XiM0ntMybNwC&q=top+gunner%2C+last+vector+based+arcade+game&pg=PA71 . live .
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  24. Kunkel . Bill . Bill Kunkel (journalist) . Insert Coin Here: Jungle King . . February 1983 . 1 . 12 . 62 .
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  45. Book: Kao, John J.. Entrepreneurship, creativity & organization: text, cases & readings. 1989. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 0-13-283011-6. John Kao. 45. Estimates counted 7 billion coins that by 1982 had been inserted into some 400,000 Pac Man machines worldwide, equal to one game of Pac Man for every person on earth. US domestic revenues from games and licensing of the Pac Man image for T-shirts, pop songs, to wastepaper baskets, etc. exceeded $1 billion..
  46. Book: Uncle John's Legendary Lost Bathroom Reader . September 1999 . . 978-1-879682-74-0 . 373 . In 1982 alone, Americans pumped $6 billion in quarters into Pac-Man's mouth—more than they spent in Las Vegas casinos and movie theatres combined. . 1 March 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222414/https://books.google.com/books?id=OdxLduEdxmcC . live .
  47. Book: Uncle John's Legendary Lost Bathroom Reader . November 2012 . . 978-1-60710-670-8 . 348 . In 1982 alone, Americans pumped $6 billion in quarters into Pac-Man's mouth—more than they spent in Las Vegas casinos and movie theatres combined. . 1 March 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222415/https://books.google.com/books?id=QClZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT348 . live .
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  49. Book: Game On! Video Game History From Pong and Pac-Man to Mario, Minecraft and More. 2016. MacMillan Publishing Group, LLC. Hansen, Dusty. 978-1-250-08095-0. 11.
  50. Web site: Leack . Jonathan . World of Warcraft Leads Industry With Nearly $10 Billion In Revenue . 26 January 2017 . GameRevolution . 9 January 2019 . 20 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210420110806/https://www.gamerevolution.com/features/13510-world-of-warcraft-leads-industry-with-nearly-10-billion-in-revenue . live .
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  52. Book: Wii Innovate – How Nintendo Created a New Market Through the Strategic Innovation Wii. Jörg Ziesak. GRIN Verlag. 2009. 978-3640497744. 50. Donkey Kong was Nintendo's first international smash hit and the main reason behind the company's breakthrough in the Northern American market. In the first year of its publication, it earned Nintendo 180 million US dollars, continuing with a return of 100 million dollars in the second year.. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222417/https://books.google.com/books?id=C8rHXoUCbfAC&pg=PA2029. live.
  53. News: Bally Will Quit Making Pinball, Video Machines. Toledo Blade. 11 July 1988. 22. 12 May 2020. 20 October 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211020162953/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4FtQAAAAIBAJ&pg=6893%2C2823984. live.
  54. Book: The medium of the video game. Mark J. P. Wolf. University of Texas Press. 2001. 0-292-79150-X. 44. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222417/https://books.google.com/books?id=lKZriBxbcwQC&pg=PA44. live.
  55. Ms. Pac-Man (Coin-Op) . Digital Press . March 1995 . 24 . 19 .
  56. Book: The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world. Steve L. Kent. Prima. 2001. 0-7615-3643-4. 132. Atari sold more than 70,000 Asteroids machines in the United States. The game did not do as well in Europe and Asia, however. Only about 30,000 units were sold overseas..
  57. Gottschalk. S.. Videology: Video-Games as Postmodern Sites/Sights of Ideological Reproduction. Symbolic Interaction. 1995. 18. 1. 1–18. 10.1525/si.1995.18.1.1. 18 March 2012. 15 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120515082650/http://cdclv.unlv.edu/archives/interactionism/gottschalk/video.html. live.
  58. Forbes. 127. Forbes. 1981. 102. At $2000 a unit, Atari has made about $140 million from that game alone.. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222418/https://books.google.com/books?id=6y68AAAAIAAJ&q=%22At+$2000+a+unit,+Atari+has+made+about+$140+million+from+that+game+alone%22. live.
  59. Book: Horowitz . Ken . Beyond Donkey Kong: A History of Nintendo Arcade Games . 6 August 2020 . . 978-1-4766-8420-8 . 200 . 4 March 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222931/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3D0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA200 . live .
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  64. News: Virtua Fighter Kids: New Sega Saturn game is way "a-head" of its time . 11 October 2021 . . September 3, 1996 . 31 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220331111034/https://segaretro.org/Press_release:_1996-09-03:_Virtua_Fighter_Kids:_New_Sega_Saturn_game_is_way_%22a-head%22_of_its_time . live .
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  66. Akagi. Masumi. "Tekken 2", "Virtua Cop 2" Top Videos '96. Game Machine. 534. Amusement Press, Inc.. 1 February 1997. 26. https://web.archive.org/web/20200523214551/https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/19970201p.pdf. 23 May 2020. live.
  67. Book: RePlay . January 1984.
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  69. Book: The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world. Steve L. Kent. Prima. 2001. 0-7615-3643-4. 352. In 1982, Universal Sales made arcade history with a game called Mr Do! Instead of selling dedicated Mr Do! machines, Universal sold the game as a kit. The kit came with a customized control panel, a computer board with Mr Do! read-only memory (ROM) chips, stickers that could be placed on the side of stand-up arcade machines for art, and a plastic marquee. It was the first game ever sold as a conversion only. According to former Universal Sales western regional sales manager Joe Morici, the company sold approximately 30,000 copies of the game in the United States alone..
  70. Overseas Readers Column. Game Machine. 259. Amusement Press, Inc.. 1 May 1985. 22. ja. https://web.archive.org/web/20200131231206/https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/19850501p.pdf. 31 January 2020. live.
  71. OutRun. Mean Machines Sega. EMAP. 22. August 1994. 92–3. 0967-9014.
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  75. Web site: Leone. Matt. The Rise, Fall, and Return of NBA Jam. 1UP. 1 March 2021. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130412043344/http://www.1up.com/features/rise-fall-return-nba-jam?pager.offset=1. 12 April 2013.
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  77. Book: Horowitz . Ken . The Sega Arcade Revolution: A History in 62 Games . 22 June 2018 . . 978-1-4766-7225-0 . 36–42 . 7 April 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222932/https://books.google.com/books?id=xT1jDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 . live .
  78. Book: Steven L. Kent

    . . Steve L. Kent. Steven L. Kent. Prima. 2001. 0-7615-3643-4. 224. Gottlieb sold approximately 25,000 Q*Bert arcade machines..

  79. Overseas Readers Column: Korean Counterfeiters Were Exposed By Police . . 379 . . 1 May 1990 . 30 . ja . https://web.archive.org/web/20200131225318/https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/19900501p.pdf . 31 January 2020 . live .
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  82. News: Horwitz. Jeremy. Technology: Mortal Apathy?. The New York Times. 8 July 2002. 18 February 2017. 3 October 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131003002950/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/08/business/technology-mortal-apathy.html?pagewanted=2. live.
  83. Okamoto . Yoshiki . Yoshiki Okamoto . [How Darkstalkers Was Born!] Katsuya Akitomo, the Man Who Influenced Character Designs in "CAPCOM" ]. https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/l-jiOuxVUog. 2021-12-11 . live. . 6 minutes . 21 July 2021 . 23 January 2021. .
  84. Web site: Fujihara. Mary. Inter Office Memo. Atari. 2 November 1983. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20141006081923/http://www.atarigames.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=49:atari-sales-estimates-for-other-manufactures-2&catid=5:atari-inter-office-memos&Itemid=5. 6 October 2014. 18 March 2012.
  85. Book: Steven L. Kent. 2001. The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story behind the Craze that Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. Prima. 352. 9780761536437. With more than 60,000 units sold in the United States, Donkey Kong was Nintendo's biggest arcade hit. The arcade industry began its long collapse the year after Donkey Kong was released, and Nintendo's arcade fortunes eroded quickly. Nintendo released Donkey Kong Junior in 1982 and sold only 30,000 machines, 20,000 Popeye machines (also 1982), and a mere 5000 copies of Donkey Kong 3 (1983).. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222415/https://books.google.com/books?id=C2MH05ogU9oC. live.
  86. Book: Horowitz . Ken . Beyond Donkey Kong: A History of Nintendo Arcade Games . 30 July 2020 . . 978-1-4766-4176-8 . 156 . 2 April 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222933/https://books.google.com/books?id=UXD0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 . live .
  87. News: Pump It Up: Exceed drops to PS2 / Xbox. Punch Jump Crew. 8 September 2005.
  88. Akagi. Masumi. "Tekken TT", "Samba DE Amiga" Top Videos. Game Machine. Amusement Press, Inc.. 626. 15 January 2001. 18. 30 October 2021. 30 October 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211030220531/https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/20010115p.pdf#page=10. live.
  89. Web site: Fujihara . Mary . Inter Office Memo: Coin-Op Product Sales . . July 25, 1983 . 14 October 2021 . 20 October 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211020200920/http://www.atarigames.com/pdffiles/salesestimates1.pdf . dead .
  90. Web site: THE FLASH DESIRE 雷電III. inhgroup.com. 2007. 2019-10-03. ja. https://web.archive.org/web/20190407204956/http://www.inhgroup.com/item/raiden04/. 7 April 2019. live. dmy-all. (Translation by Shmuplations.).
  91. Book: Horowitz . Ken . Beyond Donkey Kong: A History of Nintendo Arcade Games . 30 July 2020 . . 978-1-4766-4176-8 . 199 . 19 October 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222933/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Beyond_Donkey_Kong/UXD0DwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA199&printsec=frontcover . live .
  92. News: Dretzka . Gary . Sony, Sega Fire Latest Shot in Game Wars . 19 October 2021 . . May 26, 1995 . 31 March 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220331111031/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1995-05-26-9505260307-story.html . live .
  93. News: 14 December 2021. アミューズメントマシン『ポケモンメザスタ』 累計プレイ回数１億回突破のお知らせ. Amusement machine "Pokemon Mezasta" notice that the cumulative number of plays has exceeded 100 million times. PR TIMES. 22 December 2021. ja. 22 December 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211222155734/https://prtimes.jp/main/html/rd/p/000000178.000009185.html. live.
  94. Book: The ultimate history of video games: from Pong to Pokémon and beyond : the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world. Steve L. Kent. Prima. 2001. 0-7615-3643-4. 225. Cinematronics sold more than 16,000 Dragon's Lair machines in 1983, for an average price of $4300. Coleco purchased the home rights to the game, giving Cinematronics an additional $2 million..
  95. News: Harmetz. Aljean. Daring Dirk Perk For Arcades. Ottawa Citizen. 13 August 1983. 29. 12 May 2020. 20 October 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211020202256/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=7qMyAAAAIBAJ&pg=3206%2C953643. live.
  96. Web site: Production Numbers. Atari Games. August 31, 1999. April 19, 2021. 10 May 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130510143012/http://www.atarigames.com/atarinumbers90s.pdf. dead.
  97. Book: Fulton, Jeff. The essential guide to Flash games : building interactive entertainment with ActionScript 3.0. 2010. Friends of ED. [Berkeley, Calif.]. 978-1-4302-2614-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=VCR7XYUncEsC&pg=PA138. New. 138. A short history of Missile Command. While certainly not the size of Asteroids, the game was still a huge hit with almost 20,000 units sold.. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222934/https://books.google.com/books?id=VCR7XYUncEsC&pg=PA138. live.
  98. Web site: Stern Production Numbers and More CCI Photos. 1 May 2012. 1 October 2014. 4 May 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120504204825/http://www.tokensonly.com/2012/05/misc/stern-production-numbers-and-more-cci-photos/. live.
  99. #1 Game In Japan: Sega Electronics To Bring 'Champion Baseball' Vid to U.S. . . June 16, 1983 . 33–4 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200813195404/https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Cash-Box/80s/1983/CB-1983-06-18.pdf . August 13, 2020 . live .
  100. Web site: FY Ending March 2006: Interim Results Presentation (April–September 2005). Sega Sammy Holdings. 22 November 2005. 17 May 2012. 20 January 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130120065244/http://www.segasammy.co.jp/english/ir/library/pdf/settlement/2006/e_200603_2q_pre.pdf. live.
  101. Web site: FY2005 Third quarter Financial Results (April–December 2004). Konami. https://web.archive.org/web/20060116103026/http://www.konami.co.jp/en/ir/pdf/meeting/2005/050127.pdf#page=15. 16 January 2006. 15. 27 January 2005.
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  108. Akagi. Masumi. Sega's CG Videos Top Game Charts. Game Machine. 603. Amusement Press, Inc.. 1 February 2000. 18. https://web.archive.org/web/20200523201951/https://onitama.tv/gamemachine/pdf/20000201p.pdf. 23 May 2020. live.
  109. Book: Baer . Ralph H. . Ralph H. Baer . Videogames: In the Beginning . 2005 . Rolenta Press . 978-0-9643848-1-1 . 10–3 .
  110. Web site: Kurokawa . Fumio . ビデオゲームの語り部たち 第4部：石村繁一氏が語るナムコの歴史と創業者・中村雅哉氏の魅力 . ja . . Aetas . 2 August 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190801205701/https://www.4gamer.net/games/999/G999905/20180313040/ . 1 August 2019 . 17 March 2018 . live.
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  118. Book: Computer and Video Game Law: Cases and Materials. Ashley S. Lipson. Robert D. Brain. Carolina Academic Press. 2009. 978-1-59460-488-1. 9. Atari eventually sold more than 19,000 Pong machines, giving rise to many imitations. Pong made its first appearance in 1972 at "Andy Capp's," a small bar in Sunnyvale, California, where the video game was literally "overplayed" as eager customers tried to cram quarters into an already heavily overloaded coin slot.. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222935/https://books.google.com/books?id=IxNDAQAAIAAJ. live.
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  123. Web site: GDC 2011: Mark Cerny Discusses Marble Madness' Turbulent Development. Kyle. Orland. Gamasutra. 4 March 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110320065109/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/33375/gdc_2011_mark_cerny_discusses_.php. 20 March 2011 . live.
  124. Book: Stern . Jane . Stern . Michael . Jane & Michael Stern's Encyclopedia of Pop Culture: An A to Z Guide of Who's who and What's What, from Aerobics and Bubble Gum to Valley of the Dolls and Moon Unit Zappa . 1992 . . 978-0-06-055343-2 . 373 . “I think we have the Mickey Mouse of the 1980s,” said one Pac-Man executive when it was noted that Americans were spending about $6 billion per year on the game and its spinoffs . 1 March 2021 . 17 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222936/https://books.google.com/books?id=7AAi0VbjGU8C . live .
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  126. Book: Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008. Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition. 2008. Guinness World Records. 978-1-904994-21-3. 77. Street Fighter has sold over 25 million console games and 500,000 arcade units generating more than a billion dollars in revenue.. 18 February 2016. 17 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230117222938/https://books.google.com/books?id=OJQFSlyMEfAC. live.
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