| Above: | al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī |
| Abovestyle: | background:#cfbcfd |
| Subheader: | Arabic: المفضل بن عمر الجعفي |
| Label1: | Born |
| Data1: | before 748 |
| Label2: | Died |
| Data2: | before 799 |
| Label3: | Region |
| Data3: | Kufa (Iraq) |
| Label4: | Affiliation |
| Data4: | early Shi'ism / |
| Header6: | Mufaddal Tradition |
| Data7: | Writings: |
| Label8: | |
| Data8: | Ideas: |
| Label9: | |
| Data9: | Influenced:
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| Label10: | Non- |
| Data10: | Writings: |
| Label11: | |
| Data11: | Ideas: Teleological argument (argument from design) |
| Label12: | |
| Data12: | Influenced: Twelver Shi'ism |
Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (ar|أبو عبد ﷲ المفضل بن عمر الجعفي), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799),[1] he belonged to those circles in Kufa whom later Twelver Shi'i authors would call ('exaggerators') for their 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams.[2]
As a money-changer, al-Mufaddal wielded considerable financial and political power. He was likely also responsible for managing the financial affairs of the Imams in Medina. For a time he was a follower of the famous leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), who had claimed that the Imams were divine. Early Imami heresiographers and Nusayri sources regard al-Mufaddal as a staunch supporter of Abu al-Khattab's ideas who later spawned his own movement (the ). However, Twelver Shi'i sources instead report that after Ja'far al-Sadiq's repudiated Abu al-Khattab in 748, al-Mufaddal broke with Abu al-Khattab and became a trusted companion of Ja'far's son Musa al-Kazim.[3]
A number of writings—collectively known as the Mufaddal Tradition—have been attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which are still extant.[4] They were likely falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal by later 9th–11th-century authors. As one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq, al-Mufaddal was an attractive figure for authors of various Shi'i persuasions: by attributing their own ideas to him they could invest these ideas with the authority of the Imam.[5] The writings attributed to al-Mufaddal are very different in nature and scope, but Ja'far al-Sadiq is the main speaker in most of them.[6]
A major part of the extant writings attributed to al-Mufaddal originated among the, an early branch of Shi'i Islam.[2] A recurring theme in these texts is the myth of the world's creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent "shadows" or human souls, whom God punished for their disobedience by concealing himself from them and by casting them down into the seven heavens.[7] The (Book of the Seven and the Shadows, 8th to 11th centuries) develops the theme of seven primordial Adams who rule over the seven heavens and initiate the seven historical world cycles. The (Book of the Path, written –941) describes an initiatory "path" leading believers back through the seven heavens towards God. Those who grow in religious devotion and knowledge climb upwards on the chain of being, but others are reborn into human bodies, while unbelievers travel downwards and reincarnate into animal, vegetable, or mineral bodies. Those who reach the seventh heaven and attain the rank of ("Gate") enjoy a beatific vision of God and share the divine power to manifest themselves in the world of matter.[8]
Among the extant non- texts attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which were preserved in the Twelver Shi'i tradition, two treatises stand out for their philosophical content. These are the (al-Mufaddal's ) and the (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit), both of which feature Ja'far al-Sadiq presenting al-Mufaddal with a proof for the existence of God. The teleological argument used in the is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back to Hellenistic models such as pseudo-Aristotle's Latin: [[On the Universe|De mundo]] (3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) Latin: [[De natura deorum]].[9] The dialectical style of the is more typical of early Muslim speculative theology,[10] and the work may originally have been authored by the 8th-century scribe Muhammad ibn Layth. Both works may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal as a reliable transmitter of hadiths in the Twelver Shi'i tradition.
Al-Mufaddal was a non-Arab ("client") of the Ju'fa, a tribe belonging to the South-Arabian Madhhij confederation.[11] Apart from the fact that he was a money-changer based in Kufa (Iraq), very little is known about his life. He probably managed the financial affairs of the Shi'ite Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), who resided in Medina (Arabia). Using his professional network, he actively raised funds for the Imams in Medina, thus also playing an important role as an intermediary between the Imams and the Shi'ite community.[12] His date of death is unknown, but he died before Musa al-Kazim, who died in 799.[13]
At some point during his life, al-Mufaddal's relations with Ja'far al-Sadiq soured because of his adherence to the teachings of the Kufan leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6).[11] Abu al-Khattab had been a designated spokesman of Ja'far, but in he was excommunicated by the Imam for his 'extremist' or 'exaggerated' ideas, particularly for having declared Ja'far to be divine.[14] However, al-Mufaddal later recanted and cut of all contact with the (the followers of Abu al-Khattab), leading to a reconciliation with Ja'far.[11]
This episode was understood in widely different ways by later Shi'i authors. On the one hand, early Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver Shi'i) heresiographers report the existence of a sect named after him, the, who would have declared Ja'far to be God and al-Mufaddal his prophet or Imam. It is not certain whether the really ever existed, and if they did, whether they really held the doctrines attributed to them by the heresiographers.[11] Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal was also highly regarded by the members of other sects such as the, and several of the writings attributed to him contain ideas.[11] He was even accused in some hadith reports of having tried to contaminate Ja'far's eldest son Isma'il with the ideas of Abu al-Khattab.[11] In addition, most works attributed to al-Mufaddal were preserved by the Nusayris,[13] a sect that survives to this day and that sometimes regarded al-Mufaddal as a (an official deputy of the Imam and a "gateway" to his secret knowledge).[15]
On the other hand, later Twelver Shi'i sources often insist that al-Mufaddal never gave in to heresy,[14] and they often emphasize that it was al-Mufaddal who was appointed by Ja'far to lead the back to the right path.[16] Some of the works attributed to al-Mufaddal, like the and the, explicitly refute those who would deny the exclusive oneness of God. These works may have been written in order to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal within the Twelver tradition and to prove his reliability as a hadith transmitter.[17] But even among Twelver scholars there was dissension. For example, while al-Shaykh al-Mufid (–1022) praised al-Mufaddal as a learned person and a trustworthy companion of the Imams, al-Najashi and Ibn al-Ghada'iri (half of the 11th century)[18] denounced him as an unbelieving heretic.[19]
The (Book of the Seven and the Shadows), also known as (Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as (Book of the Seven), 8th–11th centuries,[20] is perhaps the most important work attributed to al-Mufaddal.[21] It sets out in great detail the myth of the pre-existent "shadows" (Arabic:) whose fall from grace led to the creation of the material world. This theme of pre-existent shadows seems to have been typical of the 8th-century Kufan : also appearing in other early works such as the , it may ultimately go back to Abd Allah ibn Harb .[22]
Great emphasis is placed throughout the work on the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to as ("our lord"), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers .[23] It involves notions such as the transmigration of souls (or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles.[24] This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism,[23] where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle.[25]
A central element of the is the creation myth involving pre-existent "shadows", which also occurs in many other works with slightly different details.[26] According to this myth, the first created beings were human souls who initially dwelt in the presence of God in the form of shadows. When the shadows disobeyed God, he created a veil in which he concealed himself as a punishment. Then God created the seven heavens as a dwelling place for the disobedient souls, according to their sin. In each of the heavens God also created bodies from his own light for the souls who arrived there, and from the souls' disobedience he created the Devil. Finally, from the offspring of the Devil God created the bodies of animals and various other sublunary entities .[27]
The consists of at least eleven different textual layers which were added over time, each of them containing slightly different versions of concepts and ideas.[28] The earliest layers were written in 8th/9th-century Kufa, perhaps partly by al-Mufaddal himself, or by his close associates Yunus ibn Zabyan and Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835).[29] A possible indication for this is the fact that Muhammad ibn Sinan also wrote two works dealing with the theme of pre-existent shadows: the (Book of the Shadows) and the (Book of the Lights and the Veils).[30] Shi'i bibliographical sources also list several other 8th/9th-century Kufan authors who wrote a or Book of the Shadows.[31] In total, at least three works closely related to al-Mufaddal's are extant, all likely dating to the 8th or 9th century:[32]
Though originating in the milieus of the early Kufan, the was considerably expanded by members of a later sect called the Nusayris (now called the Alawites), who were active in 10th-century Syria.[33] The Nusayris were probably also responsible for the work's final 11th-century form.[11] However, the was not preserved by the Nusayris, but by the Syrian Nizari Isma'ilis.[11] Like the, another work that was transmitted by the Nizari Isma'ilis of Central Asia, it contains ideas which –despite being largely unrelated to Isma'ili doctrine–[34] influenced various later Isma'ili authors starting from the 10th century.
The (Book of the Path) is another purported dialogue between al-Mufaddal and Ja'far al-Sadiq, likely composed in the period between the Minor and the Major Occultation (874–941).[11] This work deals with the concept of an initiatory "path" (Arabic:) leading the adept on a heavenly ascent towards God, with each of the seven heavens corresponding to one of seven degrees of spiritual perfection. It also contains references to typical ideas like (the manifestation of God in human form), (metempsychosis or transmigration of the soul), / (metamorphosis or reincarnation into non-human forms), and the concept of creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent beings (as in the, see above).[35]
The philosophical background of the work is given by the late antique concept of a great chain of being linking all things together in one great cosmic hierarchy. This hierarchical system extends from the upper world of spirit and light (populated by angels and other pure souls) to the lower world of matter and darkness (populated by humans, and below them animals, plants and minerals). Humanity is perceived as taking a middle position in this hierarchy, being located at the top of the world of darkness and at the bottom of the world of light.[36] Those human beings who lack the proper religious knowledge and belief are reborn into other human bodies, which are likened to 'shirts' (sing.) that a soul can put on and off again. This is called or . But grave sinners are reborn instead into animal bodies, and the worst offenders are reborn into the bodies of plants or minerals .[37] On the other hand, those believers who perform good works and advance in knowledge also travel upwards on the ladder, putting on ever more pure and luminous 'shirts' or bodies, ultimately reaching the realm of the divine.[8] This upwards path is represented as consisting of seven stages above that of humanity, each located in one of the seven heavens:[38]
the Tested, first heaven
the Devout, second heaven
the Elect, third heaven
the Noble, fourth heaven
the Chief, fifth heaven
the Unique, sixth heaven
the Gate, seventh heaven
At every degree the initiate receives the chance to gain a new level of 'hidden' or 'occult' knowledge. If the initiate succeeds at internalizing this knowledge, they may ascend to the next degree. If, however, they lose interest or start to doubt the knowledge already acquired, they may lose their pure and luminous "shirt", receiving instead a heavier and darker one, and descend down the scale of being again. Those who reach the seventh degree (that of or "Gate") are granted wondrous powers such as making themselves invisible, or seeing and hearing all things –including a beatific vision of God– without having to look or listen. Most notably, they are able to manifest themselves to ordinary beings in the world of matter, by taking on the form of a human and appearing to anyone at will.[39] This ability is shared between the "Gates" in the seventh heaven and God, who also manifests himself to the world by taking on a human form.[36]
The theme of a heavenly ascent through seven degrees of spiritual perfection is also explored in other works, including the anonymous (Book of Degrees and Stages), as well as various works attributed to Muhammad ibn Sinan (died 835), Ibn Nusayr (died after 868), and others.[40] In the 9th/10th-century works attributed to the Shi'i alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, the seven degrees corresponding to the seven heavens (themselves related to the seven planets) are replaced with fifty-five degrees carrying similar names (including,,,,). These fifty-five degrees correspond to the fifty-five celestial spheres alluded to by Plato in his Timaeus and mentioned by Aristotle in his Metaphysics.[41]
Two of the treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal, the and the, differ from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature. Though both were preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only element connecting them to Shi'ism is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Their content appears to be influenced by Mu'tazilism, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology .[11] Often transmitted together in the manuscript tradition,[49] they may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal among Twelver Shi'is, to whom al-Mufaddal was important as a narrator of numerous hadiths from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son Musa al-Kazim.[17] Both works were also known to other Twelver scholars such as al-Najashi (–1058), Ibn Shahrashub (died 1192), and Ibn Tawus (1193–1266).[50]
The sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the teleological argument). The work consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'.[51] In four "sessions", Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise and providential creator.[52] The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer al-Najashi (–1058) also refers to the work as the, a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortations with the word (think!).[53]
The is not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur al-Jahiz (died 868) under the title (Book on the Proofs and Contemplation of Creation and Administration).[54] The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, although the original was likely written in the 9th century.[55] Compared to pseudo-Jahiz's, the adds an introduction that sets up a frame story involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage.[56]
Scholars have espoused various views on the ultimate origins of this work. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original.[57] In Chokr's view, at some point the work must have been translated by a Syriac author into the Arabic from a Greek original, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work. However, both Hans Daiber and Josef van Ess identify the original work on which pseudo-Jahiz's was based as the (Book of Thought and Contemplation), written by the 9th-century Nestorian Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari.[58] However this may be, Jibril ibn Nuh's, the and pseudo-Jahiz's are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop Elijah of Nisibis (died 1056),[59] by the Sunni mystic al-Ghazali (died 1111),[60] and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher Bahya ibn Paquda (died first half of 12th century).[61]
The / contains many parallels with Syriac Christian literature, especially with the commentaries on the Hexameron (the six days of creation as described in Genesis) written by Jacob of Edessa (–708) and Moses bar Kepha (–903), as well as with Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosophy called the Book of Treasures .[62] Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the four elements, minerals, plants, animals, meteorology, and the human being—was likely inspired by pseudo-Aristotle's Latin: De mundo (On the Universe, 3rd/2nd century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above.[63] In particular, the / contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in pseudo-Aristotle's Latin: De mundo is called "one", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence remains hidden for all.[64]
The idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the Quran.[65] However, in the case of the /, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on Hellenistic models. Apart from pseudo-Aristotle's Latin: De mundo (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with Cicero's (106–43 BCE) Latin: [[De natura deorum]], especially with the Stoic views on teleology and divine providence outlined in Cicero's work.[66] Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and Epicurus (341–270 BCE),[67] both reviled since late antiquity for their alleged atheism,[68] as well as Mani (–274 or 277 CE, the founding prophet of Manichaeism), a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefulness of God.[65]
The (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit) is another work in which al-Mufaddal asks Ja'far al-Sadiq to present a proof of the existence and oneness of God in response to those who openly profess atheism.[69] In comparison with the, the frame story here is less well integrated into the main text, which despite being written in the form of an epistle does not directly address al-Mufaddal's concerns about the appearance of people who would publicly deny the existence of God.[70] In the epistle itself, the author (presumed to be Ja'far al-Sadiq) recounts his meeting with an Indian physician, who contended that the world is eternal and therefore does not need a creator.[71] Taking the myrobalan fruit (perhaps the black myrobalan or Terminalia reticulata, a plant used in Ayurveda)[72] that the Indian physician was grinding as a starting point for contemplation, the author of the epistle succeeds in convincing the physician of the existence of God.[73] The dialectical style of the debate is typical of early Muslim speculative theology .[10] Sciences like astrology and medicine are presented as originating from divine revelation.[53] Melhem Chokr has proposed the 8th-century scribe and speculative theologian Muhammad ibn Layth as the original author of the, based on similarities with other works attributed to Ibn Layth, and on the attribution to him in Ibn al-Nadim's of a work called (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit on Contemplation).[74]
Some other works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal are still extant:
There are also some works attributed to, or transmitted by, al-Mufaddal that are mentioned in other sources but are now lost:
Other