Akhara Explained

Akhara or Akhada (Sanskrit: अखाड़ा, romanised: Akhāḍā) is an Indian word for a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of Indian martial artists or a sampradaya monastery for religious renunciates in Guru–shishya tradition.[1] For example, in the context of the Dashanami Sampradaya sect, the word denotes both martial arts and religious monastic aspects of the trident-wielding martial regiment of the renunciating sadhus.

Etymology

The term akhara, is a gender-egalitarian term, which means the circle or more precisely the spiritual core,[2] congregation or league,[3] it is similar to the Greek-origin word academy and the English word school, can be used to mean both a physical institution or a group of them which share a common lineage or are under a single leadership, such as the school of monastic thought or the school of martial arts. Unlike the gurukul in which students live and study at the home of a guru, members of an akhara although train under a guru but they do not live a domestic life. Some strictly practice Brahmacharya (celibacy) and others may require complete renunciation of worldly life. For example, wrestlers are expected to live a pure life while living at akhara with other fellow wrestlers, refraining from sex and owning few material possessions.

In some languages such as Odia the word is officially transcribed as akhada, by way of rendering the flapped pronounced as /link/ sound as a d. The Haryanvi and Khari Boli dialects shorten this to khada (खाड़ा).

History

Foundation dates of martial akharas

Jadunath Sarkar documented the founding date of various akharas based on a 19the century manuscript provided to him by the Nirvani Akhara of Dashanami Sampradaya.

  1. 547 CE, Avahan Akhara
  2. 646 CE, Atal Akhara
  3. 749 CE, Nirvani Akhara
  4. 904 CE, Niranjani Akhara
  5. 1146 CE, Juna Akhara which was originally called "Bhairavi Akhara"
  6. 1856 CE, Anand Akhara
  1. Dadupanthis: Armed martial akharas were first likely formed by the Dadupantji guru Jait Sahib (1693–1734 CE) when he recruited armed Naga sadhus. In 1733, Dadupanthis were tax-paying farmers in Jaipur State and martial naga sadhus used employed to enforce the payment of taxes. In 1793, Dadupanthis and Jaipur State had an agreement under which Dadhupanthis provided 5000 armed soldier sadhus to defend the Jaipur State. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Dadupanthis acted as auxiliaries who assisted the East India Company forces.

Historical timeline

In its earliest usage, akhara referred to training halls for professional fighters. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye translates the term as "military regiment".[5] Ancient use of the word can be found in the Mahabharata (c. 400 BCE text describing 900 BCE era) epic which mentions Jarasandha's Akhara at Rajgir. Legendary figures like Parashurama and Agastya are credited as the founders of the early martial akhara in certain regions of India.

Svinth (2002) traces press ups and squats used by South Asian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.[6] Many of the popular sports mentioned in the Vedas and the epics have their origins in military training, such as boxing (musti-yuddha), wrestling (maladwandwa), chariot-racing (rathachalan), horse-riding (aswa-rohana) and archery (dhanurvidya).[7]

When the 8th-century philosopher Adi Shankaracharya (788–820 CE) founded the Dashanami Sampradaya, he divided the ascetics into two categories: Shastradhari (Sanskrit: शास्त्रधारी, lit. scripture-bearers) intelligentsia and Astradhari (Sanskrit: अस्त्रधारी, lit. weapon-bearers) warriors. Shankaracharya established Naga sadhus as an astradhari armed order. He also popularised the Char Dhams during the rein of Katyuri dynasty of Garhwal Kingdom.[8]

In 904 CE and 1146 CE, Niranjani Akhara and Juna Akhara were founded respectively.

In 1398 CE, Timur massacred thousands of Sadhus of various Akharas and Hindus at Haridwar mela after sacking Delhi to punish the Tughlaq Dynasty's Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq's perceived lack of brutality towards Hindus.

In 1567 CE, Jogis (Giris) and Sannyasi (Puris) battled each other as detailed in the Tabaqat-i-Akbari, both are 2 of the 10 orders of Dashanami Akhara. Puris were outnumbered by 200 to 500 by Jogis, Akbar asked his soldiers to smear ash and join Puris to help them, this led to the victory of Puris,[4]

In 1657/1672 CE, Satnami revellion against Aurangzeb's persecution of Non-Muslims.[4] [9]

In 1664 CE, Dashanami Akhara possibly battled Aurangzeb.[4]

In 1690 CE and 1760 CE, Akharas of Saivites and Vaishnava sects fought each other at Nashik mela (60,000 died) and Haridwar mela (1,800 died).

In 1770-1820 CE, during Sannyasi rebellion against Company rule in India,[10] Akharas played a key role specially the Dashanami akhara.

In 1780 CE, the East India Company administration establish the sequence of order of procession for royal bathing by the akharas at Kumbh Mela to eliminate disputes.

Today, akhara may be used for religious purposes or for the teaching of yoga and martial arts. Some of the noted Akhara organizations include Akhil Bharatiya Akhara Parishad (All India Akhara Council), Nirmohi Akhara, Shri Dattatreya Akhara and Guru Hanuman Akhara.

Akharas within Guru–Shishya traditional Sampradaya-Paramparas

See also: Sampradaya, Parampara, Guru–shishya tradition and Gurukula.

Sampradaya is a particular system of belief and within it a particular guru's lineage is called parampara. There are 3 distinct belief-system Sampradayas (Vaishnava, Shaivite and Dashanami sampradaya), each of which follows one of 3 types of Guru–shishya parampara lineage (Deva, Rishi and Manav parampara), each sampradaya-parampara may have several akharas of shastradhari (intellectuals) or astradhari (warriors), and larger akharas may have own one or more permanent mathas.

Sampradaya (Sanskrit : सम्प्रदाय IAST ) translated as ‘tradition’, 'spiritual lineage' or a ‘religious system’. It relates to a succession of masters and disciples, which serves as a spiritual channel, and provides a delicate network of relationships that lends stability to a religious identity. Sampradaya is a body of practice, views and attitudes, which are transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. A particular guru lineage is called parampara. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the guru–shishya traditional parampara of a living guru, one belongs to its proper sampradaya. One cannot become a member by birth, as is the case with gotra, a seminal, or hereditary, dynasty. In the traditional residential form of education, the shishya remains with his or her guru as a family member and gets the education as a true learner.[11] In some traditions there is never more than one active master at the same time in the same guruparamaparya (lineage).[12]

Sampradaya: three sampradayas are Vaishnava, Shavite and Advait

has 6 major Guru–shishya traditional paramparas

Paramparās: 3 types (Daiva, Rishi and Manav)

Daiva-paramparā

Ṛiṣhi-paramparā

Mānava-paramparā

Two types of Akhara: Shashtradhari and Astradhari

When the 8th-century philosopher Adi Shankaracharya founded the Dashanami Sampradaya, he divided the ascetics into two categories:

Astra Martial Arts Akhara

See also: Paika akhada. Astra (Hindi: अस्त्र), the weapons or martial arts have a long tradition in India. The oldest recorded organized unarmed fighting art in South Asia is malla-yuddha or combat-wrestling, codified into four forms and pre-dating the Vedic Period.[29] Stories describing Krishna report that he sometimes engaged in wrestling matches where he used knee strikes to the chest, punches to the head, hair pulling, and strangleholds.[6] Based on such accounts, Svinth (2002) traces press ups and squats used by South Asian wrestlers to the pre-classical era.[6]

In modern usage, akhara most often denotes a wrestling ground[24] and is typically associated with kushti. For wrestlers, the akhara serves as a training school and an arena in which to compete against each other.[30] The akhara used by wrestlers still have dirt floors to which water, red ochre, buttermilk and oil are added. Aside from wrestling, other fighting systems are also taught and practiced in akhara, which are commonly named after their founder. Indian martial artists may still practice in regional versions of traditional akhara today, but these are often replaced with modern training studios outside India.

Dangal

See also: Badam milk, Choorma and Desi Ghee. While akhara is a place where practicing martial artists lodge and train under a martial art guru, akhara is also usually an arena for the dangal organised among the competing sports person.[31] While living at akhara, pehlwan practice celibacy, stay smoke free and alcohol free and they eat nutrition tradition diet usually rich in milk, ghee, dried nuts and roti.[31] Dangal is Hindi language word which means Sparring or competition in akhara, Sometimes called "Chhinj" in punjabi.[32] Sparring is a form of training common to many combat sports which may vary in its precise form varies, but it is relatively 'free-form' fighting, with enough rules, customs, or agreements to make injuries unlikely.

Langot

Langot (लंगोट) or langota (लंगोटा), also Kaupinam (कौपिनम) or kaupina (कौपिन), is a traditional style of Indian loincloth for men, worn as underwear in dangal held in akharas. It is now mainly used by men when exercising and other intense physical games especially wrestling, to prevent hernias and hydrocele.[33]

Langota, mostly worn by wrestlers, is a sewn undergarment which covers the buttocks and groin. A kaupina, mostly worn by ascetics or by older men in many parts of India, is a similar but unsewn garment that does not cover the buttocks and instead it passes between the buttocks.

Major Martial Arts Akharas

The major traditional Indian-origin martial arts akhara, mostly focused on wrestling and Pehlwani, by state include:

Shashtra Monastic Akhara

Shastra (Sanskrit and Hindi: शास्त्र) means treatise, scriptures or the school of thoughts based on those. There has been a long monastic tradition of obtaining "Shashtra Vidhya" (knowledge of Sashtras) in various Sampradaya schools of thoughts in Hinduism, where disciples could learn one or more of the following in a monastic setting: Hindu scriptures, Yoga Sashtra, Vastu shastra (architecture), Vaimānika Shāstra (ancient aerospace technology), Jyotiḥśāstra (astrology), Nadi Sashtra (fortune telling), Rasa shastra (medicine), Shilpa Shastras (arts and craft), Natya Shastra (dance, drama and performing arts),[46] Tantra, Para Vidya (Higher scholar), Madhu-vidya (knowledge of bliss), and so on.

Organization of Monastic Akhara

According to some texts, an akhara is governed by the sacred body of five Sri Pancha and organized into 52 Matha or Marhi (Hindi: मढ़ी). Many assume 52 Marhi to refer to 52 lineages but they refer to 52 Desas (countries). These 52 Marhis are divided into 8 Davas corresponding to 8 directions.[47] The maths are permanent centres of monastic practice with physical structures, led by a mahant or spiritual leader. Though not all akharas follow this structure, mainly due to the insufficient size. For example, smaller akhara, some as small as having only one marhi, may be set up either as a subsidiary affiliate to a larger and more established older akhara group or occasionally an independent akhara due to the disagreements over succession. Akharas can march as subsidiary akhara under the current preferential order of sequence in the Shahi Snan during Kumbh Mela or they are given the last place if their claim for the independent akhara is approved by the authorities.

Sri Pancha

According to the texts, the top administrative body of each of the akhara is the Sri Pancha (sacred body of five), representing Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and Ganesha. It is elected by consensus from among the Mahants of Matha or Marhi (Sanskrit: मठ and Hindi: मढ़ी ) that make up an akhara on every Kumbha Mela and the body holds its post for 4 years. It is a concept similar to centuries-old Indian republican consensual elective system of Panchayat (at an individual village level) and Khap (grouping of the related villages within a union).

Among the five elected Sri Pancha of the akhara, they hold the following positions in the decreasing order of seniority, all of which can be considered guru in their own right:

Sampradaya-based Classification of Akharas

At highest level, akhara are classified into one of the four different Sampradaya (philosophical denominations) based on their traditional systems:[48] [49] Each sampradaya has several paramparas (lineages), each started by a guru based on the guru-shishya tradition. The subsidiary status is as per the traditional Shahi Snan preferential sequence of procession, though time to time several subsidiary akharas have unsuccessfully tried with authorities to have this sequence altered as the number of their followers grew.[50]

Initially there were only 4 akharas based on the sampradaya (sect), which have split into subsidiary akharas due to differences in the leadership and expansion in the followership. In January 2019, there were 13 akharas that are allowed to participate in Prayagraj Kumbh Mela and they have formed the Akhil Bharatiya Akhara Parishad with 2 representatives from each of the 13 akharas to manage the akhara-related affairs across all kumb melas and across the nations.[51]

Still-extant Ancient Akharas

The still-extant seven Shastradhari or monastic Hindu akhara founded by the 8th-century philosopher Adi Shankaracharya (also the founder of four Mathas) can be classified, in terms of affiliation and the number of followers, as three major akharas, three minor akharas under major akharas and one smaller akhara under the major akhara:[1]

Akhara Subsidiary Akhara Sub-subsidiary Akhara
1 align=left Niranjani Akhara
Founded in 904 CE[52] 		Ananda Akhara, attached to Niranjani Akhara -
2 align=left Juna Akhara
Founded in 1146 CE 		Avahan Akhara, attached to Juna Akhara Agni Akhara, attached to Juna Akhara
3 align=left Atal Akhara, attached to Mahanirvani Akhara -

The akhara with the most sadhu is Juna Akhara, followed by Niranjani Akhara and Mahanirvani Akhara. Among these, today, three are considered major akhara (Juna, Niranjani and Mahanirvani) and three minor akhara (Avahan affiliated with Juna, Ananda affiliated with Niranjani and Atal affiliated with Mahanirvani). The 7th, small Brahmachari (celibate) akhara named Agni is also affiliated with Juna Akhara.

Akharas Today

There are numerous other still-extant akharas, founded by the disciples of the existing akharas, that are usually loosely or directly aligned under one of the existing akhara lineage. The Akhil Bharatiya Akhara Parishad (ABAP) (Hindi: अखिल भारतीय अखाड़ा परिषद, transliterated as All India Akhara Council), founded in 1954,[53] is the apex organisation of 13 akharas of Hindu Sants (saints) and Sadhus (ascetics) representing the largest followership in India.[54] [55] These are entitled to the special privilege of the Shahi Snan at Kumbh Mela and Ujjain Simhastha mela in a pre-determined sequence.[49]

Akharas Sequence At Kumbh Mela's Shahi Snan

The monastic akhara and their Sri Pancha of various sects meet during the Kumbha Mela. The Naga sadhu and the various akhara traditionally lead and initiate the bathing rituals before the general population steps in.[56] [57]

The order of procession is

  1. Mahanirvani akhara with Atal akhara,
  2. Niranjani akhara with Anand akhara,
  3. Juna akhara with Ahvahan and Agni akhara,
  4. Nirvani akhara,
  5. Digambar akhara,
  6. Normohi akhara,
  7. Naya Udasin akhara,
  8. Bada Udasin akhara, and
  9. Nirmal akhara.

See also

Further reading

Martial arts akhara

Monastic akhara

Notes and References

  1. https://books.google.com/books?id=9XC9bwMMPcwC&dq=1954+Kumbh+stampede&pg=RA16-PA200 Akharas and Kumbh Mela
  2. http://www.newsweek.com/carnival-soul-indias-maha-kumbh-mela-62863 Carnival of the Soul At India's Maha Kumbh Mela, News Week, Tahir Shah, 3 May 2013
  3. Three Essays: Cannibalism, The Kumbh Mela, The Legacy of Arab Science, Tahir Shah, pp.42
  4. David N. Lorenzen, 2006, Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, p.51-65.
  5. Web site: The Wrestler's Body . Publishing.cdlib.org . 2012-03-29.
  6. Web site: Kim Taylor . Kronos: A Chronological History of the Martial Arts and Combative Sports . Ejmas.com . 2015-09-27.
  7. Book: The Timechart History of India . 2005 . Robert Frederick Ltd. . 0-7554-5162-7.
  8. Book: Handa . O.C(Omacanda) . History of Uttaranchal . 2002 . Indus Publishing. New Delhi . 9788173871344., p.26
  9. Encyclopedia: Grierson. George Abraham. George Abraham Grierson. Hastings. James. James Hastings. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. Sadhs. 1908. Charles Scribner's Sons. XI: Sacrifice-Sudra. New York. 46–47.
  10. Lorenzen, D.N.. Warrior Ascetics in Indian History. . Journal of the American Oriental Society. 1978 . 98 . 1. 617 - 75. 10.2307/600151. 600151 .
  11. [A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]
  12. Padoux, André. "The Tantric Guru" in David Gordon White (ed.) 2000. Tantra in Practice, p. 44. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
  13. Web site: Hawaii Saiva siddhanta Church article . 2018-02-17 . 2015-09-06 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150906030453/http://www.hinduismtoday.com/modules/smartsection/item.php?itemid=3247 . dead .
  14. Mathew Chandrankunnel (2008) "Philosophy of Quantum Mechanics" P. 720
  15. http://www.advaita.org.uk/teachers/navnath_sampradaya.htm Nisargathatta maharaj
  16. Web site: International Nath Order . 2018-02-17 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160127001629/http://www.nathorder.org/wiki/International_Nath_Order . 2016-01-27 . dead .
  17. [Prithivi Nath Kaul Bamzai|P. N. K. Bamzai]
  18. V. N. Drabu (1990) "Śaivāgamas: A Study in the Socio-economic Ideas and Institutions of Kashmir (200 B.C. to A.D. 700) Indus Publishing
  19. http://www.universalshaivafellowship.org Lakshmanjo Academy
  20. Journal of the Oriental Institute (pp 301), by Oriental Institute (Vadodara, India)
  21. Indian Sadhus by Govind Sadashiv Ghurye
  22. Advaitic Concept of Jīvanmukti by Lalit Kishore Lal Srivastava
  23. Book: Mark Tully . No Full Stops in India . registration . 1992 . Penguin Books Limited . 978-0-14-192775-6 . 127–.
  24. Book: James G. Lochtefeld. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. registration. 2002. The Rosen Publishing Group. 978-0-8239-3179-8. 23–4.
  25. Book: https://books.google.com/books?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC&pg=PA156 . Contesting the Nation . David Ludden . Soldier Monks and Militant Sadhus . William R. Pinch . University of Pennsylvania Press . 1996 . 9780812215854 . 141–156 .
  26. Book: Gods Gateway: Identity and Meaning in a Hindu Pilgrimage Place . James Lochtefeld . Oxford University Press . 2009 . 9780199741588 . 252–253 .
  27. Book: Hari Ram Gupta . History of the Sikhs: The Sikh commonwealth or Rise and fall of Sikh misls (Volume IV) . 2001 . Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers . 978-81-215-0165-1 . 175 .
  28. Book: Maclean, Kama . Pilgrimage and Power: The Kumbh Mela in Allahabad, 1765-1954 . 28 August 2008 . OUP USA . 978-0-19-533894-2 ., pp=57-58.
  29. Web site: Kalarippayattu, The divine martial art of Kerala . 16 May 2009 . bot: unknown . https://web.archive.org/web/20090516231037/http://www.kathinayoga.com/KalariWorld/Articles/other_article3.html . 16 May 2009 . dmy-all .
  30. News: Life in Satpal's akhada: Early mornings and lots of ghee. Chakravertty. Shreya. 26 August 2008. Indian Express. 10 June 2013.
  31. Rudraneil Sengupta, 2016, Enter the Dangal: Travels through India's Wrestling Landscape, chapter 1 and 2.
  32. https://www.hindimeaningind.in/word/dangal/ meaning of Dangal
  33. Book: Raman Das Mahatyagi. Yatan Yoga: A Natural Guide to Health and Harmony. 2007. YATAN Ayurvedics. 978-0-9803761-0-4. 33–.
  34. Web site: Adopt a akhara scheme . 2017-06-14 . 2021-04-12 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210412113904/https://www.sportsauthorityofindia.nic.in/writereaddata/mainlinkFile/File1186.pdf . dead .
  35. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/phogat-to-launch-hisar-wrestling-nursery-on-feb-15/articleshow/57115973.cms Phogat to launch Hisar wrestling nursery on Feb 15, India Timea, 15 Feb 2017
  36. Web site: About Hindu Public School . 2017-06-14 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170601194512/http://hindupublicschool.org/about.aspx . 2017-06-01 . dead .
  37. http://www.merinews.com/mobile/article/India/2014/08/06/akharas-hidden-in-plain-view-of-gurgaon-wrestling-still-in-shadows/15899743 Gurgaon akharas
  38. http://kushtiwrestling.blogspot.sg/2013/09/guru-leelu-akhada-in-ladpur-haryana.html Guru Leelu Akhara
  39. https://www.scoopwhoop.com/Indian-Akharas-Wrestling-Training-Centres/#.xkydid5t4 Top 10 Indian akhara training centres, ScoopWhoop
  40. http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-akhara-praised-by-gandhi-lies-unsung-on-its-centenary-in-amravati-1686959 Akhara praised by Gandhi lies unsung on its centenary in Amravati, DNA News, 1-May-2012
  41. Web site: Chandgi Ram Akhara promoting women wrestling since 40 years, DNA News, Bhanvi Arora, 20-February-2015 . 2017-06-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160728045901/http://www.dnaindia.com/locality/chandni-chowk/chandgi-ram-akhara-promoting-women-wrestling-40-years-53722 . 2016-07-28 . dead .
  42. https://rohitgautamphotography.wordpress.com/2013/08/24/the-oldest-wrestling-school-of-india-guru-hanuman-akhara/ Guru hanuman akhara
  43. http://www.shastarvidiya.org/history/ranjit_akhara.html Ranjit Akhara
  44. http://www.shastarvidiya.org/articles/misunderstandings.html Hindu origin of Sikh religion and martial arts, www.shastarvidiya.org
  45. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/blink/article6571162.ece#im-image-0 Fight clubs of varanasi, The Hindu Business Line, 7 Nov 2014
  46. https://books.google.com/books?id=cHILthAUauEC&dq=akhara+circle&pg=PA169 Art and Culture: Painting and Perspective, Volume 2, Ahsan Jan Qaisar, Som Prakash Verma.2002
  47. Web site: admin. 2016-09-20. Structure of the Mahanirvani Akhada. 2020-12-28. Mahanirvani Peetam. en-US.
  48. Web site: Akhada . www.firstfoundation.in . 2013-02-28 . 2013-10-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131021125701/http://www.firstfoundation.in/WW-Rel/Hindu/akhada.htm . dead .
  49. https://mahakumbhmelaujjain.wordpress.com/tag/agni-akhara-akharas-in-ujjain-kumbh-avahan-juna-akhara-mahamandleshwar-mahanirvani-akhara-nirmal-akharasnirvani-akhara/ Akharas At Simhastha Kumbha Mela Ujjain, 17-Jan-201
  50. South Asian Religions on Display: Religious Processions in South Asia and in the Diaspora, Knut A. Jacobsen, ISBN hardback 978-0-415-4373-3, ISBN ebook ISBN hardback 978-0-203-93059-5
  51. https://www.amarujala.com/india-news/kumbha-was-also-used-in-the-mughal-period-what-is-the-history-and-importance-of-the-arena?pageId=1&pageId=2&pageId=3&pageId=4&pageId=5 Akharas and their history
  52. http://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/load_more/Magazine/233746/ Kumbh Mela was originally known as Magh Mela, Outlook India
  53. http://hindi.webdunia.com/indian-religion-kumbh-mela/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AD-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%88-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2-%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF-%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%BE-%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6-113013000090_1.htm, Tussle between Akhara members, WebDuniya
  54. Web site: Akhara Parishad welcomes verdict on Ayodhya. The Hindustan Times. 2010-09-30. 2010-10-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20101004003017/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Akhara-Parishad-welcomes-verdict-on-Ayodhya/Article1-606592.aspx. 4 October 2010 . live.
  55. Web site: Akhara Parishad do not see eye-to-eye with VHP. https://web.archive.org/web/20050728104339/http://www.hindu.com/2005/06/14/stories/2005061410370300.htm. dead. 2005-07-28. 2005-06-14. The Hindu. 2010-10-01.
  56. https://books.google.com/books?id=kEj-2a7pmVMC&dq=Kumbha+Mela&pg=PA259 Kumbha Mela
  57. https://books.google.com/books?id=1pCXqynwwQcC&dq=1954+Kumbh+stampede&pg=PA21 Maha Kumbh

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