York (explorer) explained

See also: Bust of York.

York
Birth Date:1770–75
Birth Place:Ladysmith, Caroline County, Virginia
Death Date:After 1815
Occupation:Body servant (enslaved), explorer
Module:
Embed:yes
Serviceyears:1803–1806
Rank:Sergeant (honorary posthumous – Presidential citation)
Employer:Enslaved by William Clark
Known For:Participating in the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Parents:Old York, Rose
Spouse:1
Relatives:Juba (brother), Nancy (sister), Scipio (half-brother), Daphney (half-sister)

York (1770–75 – after 1815)[1] was an American explorer[2] and historic figure, being the only African-American member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He participated in the entire exploration and made significant contributions to its success. He was the first African American to cross the continent and see the Pacific. He has become an American icon and several monuments depicting him have been erected honoring his legacy.[3] [4] [5]

York was born enslaved, the son of Old York and Rose, who had been enslaved by John Clark III, William Clark's father.[6] William inherited York from his father in 1799. York was a large man; his weight has been estimated as . He was about the same age as Clark, perhaps a few years older or younger, and naturally strong.[7] [8] His skin was dark: he was "black as a bear", said one who knew him,[9] and his hair was short and curly.[10] Like most of the enslaved, York was illiterate, and information about him is scant.

York expected to be given his freedom after the successful expedition was over, in view of what he called his "immense services", but Clark refused repeatedly and became angry when York would not go back willingly to his pre-expedition role of submissive body servant. He also expressed irritation at York's insistence on remaining in Louisville, where his wife and possibly children were. He whipped York and eventually sold him.[11]

Documentation concerning York is lacking for the years immediately following the expedition. About 20 years later, Clark told Washington Irving that he had freed York and set him up in business, giving him six horses and a large wagon to start a drayage business moving goods between Nashville and Richmond. However, according to Clark as reported by Irving, York was lazy, would not get up in the morning, did not take good care of his horses, longed to return to slavery, and died of cholera. However, the credibility of this report is dubious.

Early life

York was born in Caroline County near Ladysmith, Virginia. His skin was dark colored. He and several members of his family were enslaved by the Clark family. The will of John Clark III (father of George Rogers and William Clark) states:[12]

I give and bequeath to my son Edmund... three slaves, to wit Peter (Vegas child), and Scipio and Darathy (Rose's children)...

I give and bequeath to my son William... one black man named York, also old York and his wife Rose, and their two children, Nancy and Juba; also three old negroes, Tame, Cupid and Harry.

The most plausible family tree based on this description and others is that York was the son of Old York, not by Rose, that Scipio (also spelled Sippo, Seppo, Sep, and Pipo, likely named the same as the Roman general Scipio Africanus) and Daphny (also spelled Dafney, Daphney, and Daphne) were Rose's children not by Old York, and that Nancy and Juba were Old York and Rose's biological children. This would make Scipio, Daphney, Juba, and Nancy the half-siblings of York.

William Clark called York his "playmate".[13] He was Clark's "body servant".

The name "Ben"

There is a single, unsupported oral report, from 1965, that York also had the name Ben. The name never appears in any of the many records of the Lewis and Clark expedition, nor in any other document.

On the expedition

York "participated fully in the journey and contributed in significant ways to its success." The records of the well-documented trip do not reveal any racial bias against him.[14] For all intents and purposes, York's role in Lewis and Clark's Corps of Discovery was equal to that of the expedition's white men. He could swim, which many of the troupe could not. He was allowed to use a rifle, something the enslaved were not ordinarily permitted. When a decision had to be made, York's vote counted equally with those of the white men. The expedition apparently held none of the enslaved's usual restrictions on movement, and while opportunities to escape may have appeared, York remained with the Corps of Discovery.

A modern writer has called York indispensable to the expedition. The journals are peppered with references to York's hunting prowess: he shot buffalo, deer, and geese alike. His use of a rifle is highly unusual and shows the trust expedition members had in him. His skill in hunting with a rifle may have antedated the expedition. He also kept his eye out for new species, for which the expedition was searching. He played a major role in the heavy work of paddling upstream, portaging, and building shelters. He aided in navigating trails and waterways.

York and Native Americans

York's most spectacular contributions were with the Native American tribes the expedition came into contact with, whose assistance was sometimes very necessary. According to the journals of the expedition, York's blackness served as a passport with them; they were impressed by such a "strange creature". According to Richard Betts, he was "the main attraction in Lewis and Clark's travelling magic show." York was a sensation.[15]

The following excerpts are from the expedition's official report:

York is not mentioned by name, but at their 1805–06 winter camp on the Columbia River, Indians brought their women to market "for a fishinghook or a string of beads", resulting in cases of "venereal disease".

The memory of York persisted in Indian oral tradition until the 20th century.

Arriving at the Pacific and voting

On November 18, 1805, York accompanied Clark to a tree at Cape Disappointment State Park, Washington, where Clark added his name to Lewis's and carved in the tree "By Land from the U. States in 1804 & 1805". York became the first African-American man to reach the Pacific Ocean when he walked nineteen miles (30 km) from camp with Clark. In late November, all the members of a party, including York and Sacagawea, were consulted by the leaders as to where to camp for the winter. According to Martin Plamondon II, to call this a vote, as it is often called, is to create a myth; there is no implication that the vote of the majority would be followed. He calls it "polling" rather than voting.[16] In a reply, Dayton Duncan notes that Clark wrote down the views on the question of every member of the expedition, including York and Sacagawea. This was itself very unusual. The men believed that they, not the leaders, had made the decision. According to Duncan, it was a vote.[17] Glen Kirkpatrick disagrees.[18]

Mentions in Clark's journal

The name York is mentioned in the Lewis and Clark journals 135 times.[3]

After the expedition

All the men of the expedition except York received double pay according to rank, $5 to $30 per month, and each enlisted man was granted 320acres of land. York, as a slave, received nothing.

Contrary to the general belief that Clark freed York immediately after their return, York remained enslaved and the property of Clark for at least five more years. He accompanied Clark on the latter's celebratory visit to Washington D.C. in 1807, and when Clark moved his family to St. Louis to take up his new position as brigadier general of the militia and Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the new territory.

Historian Robert Betts said the freedom York had during the Lewis and Clark expedition made resuming enslavement unbearable.[19] York asked Clark for his freedom based upon his good services during the expedition.

"It is shown that York had gained a little freedom while on the expedition with Lewis and Clark. It is mentioned in journals that York went on scouting trips and going to trade with villages, experiencing freedom while doing that. Clark named two geographic discoveries after him; York's Eight Islands and York's Dry Creek, indicating that Clark may have respected him. When a poll was taken to decide where the group should stay over one winter, York's vote was recorded. He was also able to swim, unlike some of the men who were with them on their expedition."

William Clark's letters to his brother

In 1988, 47 letters written by Clark to his brother Jonathan were discovered; written between 1792 and 1811, they were published as a volume in 2002.[20] Information concerning York was one of the main surprises in the letters, according to their editor James J. Holmberg. From them we learn the previously unknown fact that York had a wife, and that his marriage antedated the expedition, which was deliberately made up primarily of unmarried men, like Lewis and Clark themselves. All that is known of his wife is that she was from the Louisville area, where Clark and York lived before the expedition, and that she was enslaved by someone other than Clark. York's attempts to persuade Clark to let him return to the Louisville area led to a serious falling-out between them in 1808.

That year Clark moved to St. Louis, to take up his new duties as US agent for Indian affairs. York and other household members moved with him. By November 1808, Clark was angered by York's refusal to accept the move to St. Louis and repeated requests that he be hired out in Louisville or sold to someone there. As Clark wrote his brother when finally giving in, he decided to

York was sent to work for a strict Louisville nephew, John H. Clark. A few weeks later, Clark mentions York again to his brother:

Clark believed that York would not provide "service" in St. Louis, and this angered him. He wrote his brother again that he would have punished York, and that if he is hired out in Kentucky, it should be with a "Severe Master" so that after "a while he may do Some Service, I do not wish him again in this Country until he applies himself to Come and give over that wife of his—I wished him to Stay with his family four or five weeks only, and not 4 or 5 months."

York was forced to return to St. Louis, where Clark found him "insolent and sulky". To "mend" this, Clark whipped York ("gave him a Severe trouncing"). He put him in jail ("Caleboos", slang Spanish calabozo) in July 1809. By August Clark had decided "to hire or Sell him". This is the last mention of York in the letters written by William Clark. A 1811 letter from a Louisville relative reported that "I don't like him nor does any other person in this country", and also that the owner of York's wife was going to move to Natchez, Mississippi. York was hired out as a wagoner, making deliveries in Louisville; the last reference to him is from 1815. Another report has him transporting goods between Nashville and Richmond.

Washington Irving's report

None of the information in Clark's letters was known to the general public in the 19th and 20th centuries. During that long period, a report by Washington Irving provided the only account of York's later life. By then a successful writer, Irving visited Clark at his home near St. Louis in 1832. Irving may have been the one to ask about York, as his account labels York "the hero of the expedition", which Clark is unlikely to have stated:

Historians have been unable to verify these claims.[21] Manumission of a slave was a formal process that required documentation. No known documents exist confirming that Clark ever freed York. According to Darrell Millner, there is nothing to corroborate any of these claims, and York's alleged desire to return to slavery "lacks historical foundation". Clark's story is self-serving and reflects pro-slavery arguments that Africans were happy to be slaves and could not lead successful lives as free people. Millner further states that it is "much more likely" that York was never freed.

The Black man living with the Crow Indians

Zenas Leonard was a fur trader who in 1839 published a memoir of his travels over several years throughout the upper West. Modern scholars consider it highly reliable. (He was the first to see and publish a description of the huge trees we call redwoods.) He reported meeting twice, once outbound and again when returning, "a negro man" living well among the Crows of what is today north-central Wyoming. The identity of the Black man, who purportedly said he had returned from St. Louis after first visiting the area with Lewis and Clark, has been subject to speculation.

Passages talking of the Black man

Passage 1 (1832)

In this village we found a negro man, who informed us that he first came to this country with Lewis & Clark—with whom he also returned to the State of Missouri, and in a few years returned again with a Mr. Mackinney a trader on the Missouri river, and has remained here ever since—which is about ten or twelve years. He has acquired a correct knowledge of their manner of living, and speaks their language fluently. He has to be quite a considerable character, or chief, in their village; at least he assumes all the dignities of a chief, for he has four wives, with whom he lives alternately. This is the custom of many of the chiefs.[22]

Passage 2 (1834)

On the return, Leonard met the same man again, in 1834:

Passage 3

Proposed identities for the Black man Leonard met

Edward Rose

Edward Rose was a fur trapper who lived for three years among the Crow and spoke their language. He was employed by Europeans as guide and interpreter. However, in a letter that only appeared in the late 1930s, Rose was killed by Indians during the winter of 1832–33, which means he could have not have been the black man Leonard saw in 1834. In addition, Rose's father was white and his mother was half Black and half Cherokee, so he was not "a negro man".

James Beckwourth

James Beckwourth, who left a lengthy autobiography, was a former slave who lived among the Crow much of the time between 1829 and 1836. However, Leonard refers to an "old negro", and Beckwourth was born in 1798 or 1800, so he would have been in his early 30s when Leonard came in contact with the old negro; according to Betts, this "all but rules him out". Beckwourth also would have been a small child at the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1803–1806. While Beckworth claims to have led the Crows' attack on the Blackfoot described by Leonard, he was "notorious" for "just plain lying" and claiming others' deeds as his own. He was called a humbug by one who knew him. "I knew Jim intimately and he was the biggest liar that ever lived."[23] In addition, he was not negroid in appearance. His father was white, and the ethnicity of his mother is not known, but she may well have been no more than half or a quarter Black (quadroon). He never described himself as Black, and he "resembled an Indian so much as to pass for one."[24] Three people who saw him mistook him for a white man. "On the basis of both age and appearance, Beckwourth having been Leonard's 'old negro' simply does not stand up."

John Brazeau

Historian William Gwaltney, in a study of black fur traders, asserts that the man was likely John Brazeau, a black Sioux war leader. "It was very likely that Brazeau told Zenas Leonard that he had come west with Lewis and Clark. As far as anyone can tell, Brazeau was telling a bald faced lie, probably for fun."[25] A John Brazeau was an employee of the American Fur Company and founded Braseau's Houses, a trading post on the Yellowstone River. Frank Grouard, an interpreter, was said to have been "the son of an American Fur Company employee named John Brazeau."[26]

York

The man described by Leonard, who is never named and presumably did not want his name known, fits York's description in size, complexion, and age. Besides the statement that he was big, the only thing known about York's appearance is that his skin was very dark. He was a Black man, which neither Rose nor Beckwourth was. The man's success and comfort living with the Crows also supports York's identification. After his wife was taken to Natchez, York no longer had a reason to remain in Louisville, and he was quite upset at Clark's refusal to grant him his freedom, given his "immense services" during the expedition. It may be supposed that York ran away from his owner and was able to travel from St. Louis up the Missouri to Montana, some .

Legacy

There is no doubt from the journals written during the expedition that York played a vital role in its success. Not only did he fulfill his duties as a laborer along the expedition, the journals also suggest that the color of York's skin intrigued the Native tribes so much they seemingly gave the expedition a pass through the land as well as commencing with trade. The journals also suggest that York had gained the respect of many of the men who were part of the expedition as well.

The Sambo and the superhero

Darrell Millner has studied how York has been shaped and presented over 200 years. He classifies scholarly treatment of York into what he calls two broad categories: the Sambo school, which has been the main trend until very recently, and the superhero school.

The Sambo version of York presents him as a happy slave, but, like all slaves, much in need of a white owner to run his life better than he could himself. In the Sambo tradition, York is neither manly nor heroic, qualities only whites can have. His role and contributions are systematically reduced to behavior that was considered fitting and appropriate for a negro, ignoring the positive aspects of York's character and his contributions, distorting some incidents to cast them in the most unfavorable light possible, and projecting onto York unsubstantiated qualities, such as a thick "Negro" dialect and an insatiable sexual appetite.

In contrast, the superhero presentation of York has elevated him "to near superhuman status and his contributions to the expedition were unsurpassed by others in the Corps of Discovery. The superhero York is the quintessential role model, a courageous, ingenious, brave, and self-sacrificing black hero who has overcome all of the obstacles that slavery and a hostile frontier threw at him. This York ultimately prevails; he is a figure not only for blacks to admire but also for them to emulate."[27]

Creative works based on York

In his novel Little Big Man, Thomas Berger mentions York as having possibly been the father of some dark-skinned Indians.

Honors (in chronological order)

Writings about York

There are no writings by York, as he was illiterate. The bitterness between him and Clark prevented him from telling his story for publication as a slave narrative.

Videos

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Encyclopedia: Encyclopedia of Louisville. York. University Press of Kentucky. 2001. John E.. Klebee. 978-0-8131-2100-0. 962. James J.. Holmberg. 2021-08-31. 2021-09-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20210906110423/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Encyclopedia_of_Louisville/pXbYITw4ZesC?hl=en&gbpv=1&bsq=York. live.
  2. Web site: York: The American Hero. Carole. Denver Public Library. March 12, 2019.
  3. Web site: York in the Journals. William. Clark. William Clark. August 20, 2021. lewis-clark.org. 4 June 2021. August 18, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210818193203/http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/3356. live.
  4. Web site: Final Years of York's Life (U.S. National Park Service). https://web.archive.org/web/20220815090939/https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/final-years-of-york-s-life.htm. August 15, 2022 .
  5. Web site: Overlook Park in Great Falls, Montana on the Lewis and Clark Trail. https://web.archive.org/web/20211225124042/http://www.lewisandclarktrail.com/section3/montanacities/greatfalls/overlookpark.htm. December 25, 2021 .
  6. Book: Clarke, Charles G.. The men of the Lewis and Clark Expedition : a biographical roster of the fifty-one members and a composite diary of their activities from all known sources. 2002. University of Nebraska Press. 0-8032-6419-4. Lincoln, Nebraska. 48870926.
  7. Book: Ambrose, Stephen E.. Undaunted courage : Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the opening of the American West. 15 February 1996. 0-684-81107-3. New York. Simon & Schuster. 33044492.
  8. Web site: Enslaved Afrikan Adventurer. Ahati N. N.. Toure. 2021. Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation. 2021-09-01. 2021-09-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20210901095544/http://www.lewis-clark.org/article/3069. live.
  9. Book: The Lewis and Clark companion : an encyclopedic guide to the voyage of discovery. Stephenie Ambrose. Tubbs. Clay. Jenkinson. New York. Henry Holt. 2003. 321. 978-0-8050-6725-5.
  10. Book: Lewis , Meriweather . August 16, 1805. Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. September 2, 2021. Meriweather Lewis. University of Nebraska Press. 2021-09-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20210905113402/https://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/item/lc.jrn.1805-08-16#lc.jrn.1805-08-16.01. live.
  11. York Explored the West With Lewis and Clark, But His Freedom Wouldn't Come Until Decades Later. Smithsonian Magazine. March 8, 2018. Shoshi. Parks. en. 2020-04-21. 2020-05-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20200520143613/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/york-explored-west-lewis-and-clark-his-freedom-wouldnt-come-until-decades-later-180968427/. live.
    • William English, Conquest of the Country Northwest of the River Ohio, 1778–1783, and Life of Gen. George Rogers Clark. Indianapolis: Bowen-Merrill, 1896, p. 49.
  13. Web site: Fallout over Freedom . Áhati N. N. Touré . April 2006 . March 6, 2008 . Lewis and Clark.org . Áhati N. N. Touré . March 11, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080311211306/http://www.lewis-clark.org/content/content-channel.asp?ChannelID=166 . live .
  14. Book: Robert Betts. In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. University Press of Colorado. 2000. Revised ed., with a new epilogue by James J. Holmberg. 0-87081-618-7.
  15. News: Natanson. Hannah. An enslaved man was crucial to the Lewis and Clark expedition's success. Clark refused to free him afterward.. 12 January 2020. Washington Post. 12 January 2020. 12 January 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200112193417/https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/01/12/york-slave-lewis-clark-expedition/. live.
  16. Decision at Chinook Point. Martin. Plamondon II. We Proceeded On. 27. 2. May 2001. 13–19. 2021-08-24. 2019-02-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20190215035233/http://www.lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol27no2.pdf#page=42. live.
  17. Decision at Chinook Point. Dayton. Duncan. We Proceeded On. 2–3. August 2001. 27. 3. 2021-08-25. 2018-02-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20180218231639/http://www.lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol27no3.pdf#page=33. live.
  18. Glen. Kirkpatrick. Lewis's bones; Chinook Point. We Proceeded On. February 2002. 28. 2–3. 1. 2021-08-25. 2015-09-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20150906133752/http://www.lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol28no1.pdf#page=6. live.
  19. Book: Betts , Robert . In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific with Lewis and Clark. University Press of Colorado. 2000. Revised ed., with a new epilogue by James J. Holmberg. 0-87081-618-7.
  20. Book: Clark , William . Dear Brother. Letters of William Clark to Jonathan Clark. William Clark. Yale University Press. New Haven, Connecticut. 2002. 0-300-09010-2. James J.. Holmberg.
  21. Web site: York. 2021. National Park Service. August 20, 2021. June 15, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200615015210/https://www.nps.gov/jeff/learn/historyculture/york.htm. live.
  22. Book: Narrative of the Adventures of Zenas Leonard. A native of Clearfield County, Pa. who spent five years in trapping for furs, trading with the Indians, &c., &c., of the Rocky Mountains. Written by himself. Zenas Leonard. 1839. Clearfield, Pennsylvania. Zenas Leonard. More legible at user.xmission.com/~drudy/mtman/html/leonintr.html.
  23. Book: Wilson , Elinor . Jim Beckwourth : Black Mountain man and war chief of the Crows. University of Oklahoma Press. 1972. Norman, Oklahoma. 7.
  24. Book: Beckwourth , James Pierson . The life and adventures of James P. Beckwourth, mountaineer, scout, and pioneer, and chief of the Crow Nation of Indians. Written from his own dictation by T. D. Bonner. Preface to the new English edition, by Charles Godfrey Leland. James Beckwourth. Bonner. T. D.. 1892. T. Fisher Unwin. London.
  25. Beyond The Pale. African-Americans in the Fur Trade West. William W.. Gwaltney. Lest We Forget. 1995. 2021-08-30. 2021-03-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20210316131538/http://lestweforget.hamptonu.edu/page.cfm?uuid=9FEC4006-CDFF-44A2-E3D69CC34C3AE4FE. live.
  26. Great Plains—II. Notes from a six-thousand-mile ramble through America.. Ian. Frazier. February 19, 1989. The New Yorker. September 2, 2021. April 1, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210401003945/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1989/02/27/great-plains-ii. live.
  27. York of the Corps of Discovery: Interpretations of York's Character and His Role in the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Darrell M.. Millner. Oregon Historical Quarterly. Fall 2003. 104. 3. 302–333. 10.1353/ohq.2003.0005. 20615343. 165692798.
  28. Peter. Michelson. Bestride the Mighty and Heretofore Deemed Endless Missouri: An Essay on the Corps of Discovery. Chicago Review. 10.2307/25294631. 23/24. 4/1. 1972. 16–29. 25294631.
  29. Web site: York: The Voice of Freedom . March 6, 2008 . . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20040305092354/http://www.music.psu.edu/york/index.html . March 5, 2004 .
  30. News: York revived to celebrate Black History Month [part 1 of 2]]. The Spokesman-Review (Spokane, Washington). 2 Feb 2018. e5. newspapers.com. 30 August 2021. 30 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210830155916/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/84410361/one-man-play-york/. live.
  31. Web site: York. March 2, 2016. March 6, 2016. 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160306015422/http://www.spokanecivictheatre.com/york/. dead.
  32. Web site: York. 2018. August 20, 2021. live. March 6, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160306015422/http://www.spokanecivictheatre.com/york/.
  33. Revisioning the Journey of Lewis and Clark: Frank X Walker's York Poems. William. Jolliff. Appalachian Journal. Fall 2008 – Winter 2009. 36. 1/2. 90–96. 40934720. 2021-08-24. 2021-08-24. https://web.archive.org/web/20210824151602/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40934720. live.
  34. Lewis and Clark on the Lower Columbia. We Proceeded On. 12. 2. 1, 3. May 1986. 2021-08-26. 2021-08-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210826002734/https://lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol12no2.pdf#page=4. live.
  35. Picturing the Corps of Discovery: The Lewis and Clark Expedition in Oregon Art. Jeffry. Uecker. Oregon Historical Quarterly. 103. 4. Winter 2002. 452–479. 20615278. 2021-09-01. 2021-09-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20210901084956/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20615278. live.
  36. Web site: Oregonian/OregonLive . K. Rambo The . 2020-06-18 . University of Portland takes down statue of Lewis & Clark slave York . 2023-01-02 . oregonlive . en.
  37. News: Great Falls Offers Other Attractions for Visitors. Great Falls Tribune. July 16, 1989. 23.
  38. News: Area Has Treasure Trove of Scrivers. Great Falls Tribune. January 30, 1999. A1, A3.
  39. News: Oliver. Myrna. Bob Scriver, Sculptor of Bronzes on the Old West. Los Angeles Times. February 2, 1999. A16.
  40. Web site: Historic Haas Mural in SW Portland to Undergo Restoration Following Critical Building Repairs [press release]]. January 22, 2016. Oregon Historical Society. August 20, 2021. March 17, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170317121700/http://www.ohs.org/about-us/news-and-press/upload/Mural-Renovation-Press-Release.pdf. live.
  41. Web site: U.S. Board on Geographic Names, listing for "York's Island".. 2011-01-14 . 2021-08-20. https://web.archive.org/web/20210820085756/https://geonames.usgs.gov/login/index.php. live .
  42. Web site: dead. July 28, 2001. Yorks Islands Fishing Access Commemoration. Crimson Bluffs Chapter, Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation. https://web.archive.org/web/20110507002936/http://www.onewest.net/~inmontana/crimsonbluffs/Yorks-Islands.htm . May 7, 2011 .
  43. Web site: Clark's 1805 map. William. Clark. William Clark. July 23, 1805. https://web.archive.org/web/20110723233547/http://www.onewest.net/~inmontana/crimsonbluffs/ClarksMap.htm. dead. July 23, 2011 .
  44. Missouri islands renamed for York. 30. May 2000. We Proceeded On. 26. 2. 2021-08-24. 2018-02-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20180218231628/http://www.lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol26no2.pdf#page=31. live.
  45. All in the Family. The In-House Honorifics of Lewis and Clark. 12–15. November 1999. We Proceeded On. Arlen J.. Large. 2021-09-06. 2015-09-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20150906130514/http://www.lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol25no4.pdf#page=32. live.
  46. News: Monument to Explorers Will Be Unveiled. Calvin. Wilson. The Kansas City Star (Kansas City, Missouri). 24 Apr 2000. 12. newspapers.com. 30 August 2021. 30 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210830151746/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/84401490/monument-to-lewis-and-clark/. live.
  47. Web site: Lewis and Clark in Kentucky — Mulberry Hill. Historical Marker Database. 2020. 2021-08-30. 2021-02-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20210226074312/https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=161324. live.
  48. Web site: President Clinton: Celebrating the Legacy of Lewis and Clark and Preserving America's Natural Treasures. January 17, 2001. 2010-12-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20060826131518/http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/new/html/Wed_Jan_17_101131_2001.html. 26 August 2006. dead.
  49. Kareem Honors York at 'Cowboy Oscars'. 32. August 2001. We Proceeded On. 27. 3. 2021-08-25. 2018-02-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20180218231639/http://www.lewisandclark.org/wpo/pdf/vol27no3.pdf#page=33. live.
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  59. Web site: Selsky. Andrew . Bust of Black hero of Lewis & Clark trip mysteriously appears in Portland park . KOMO-TV. February 24, 2021 . February 24, 2021 . February 26, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210226025408/https://komonews.com/news/local/bust-of-black-hero-of-lewis-clark-trip-mysteriously-appears-in-portland-park. live .
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