| Yolŋu Matha | |
| Also Known As: | Yuulngu |
| Familycolor: | Australian |
| Glotto: | yuul1239 |
| Glottorefname: | Yuulngu |
| Map: | Yolngu languages.png |
| Mapcaption: | Yolŋu languages (green) among other Pama–Nyungan (tan) |
Yolŋu Matha (in Australian languages pronounced as /ˈjuːŋuːl ˈmaːtaː/), meaning the 'Yolŋu tongue', is a linguistic family that includes the languages of the Yolngu (also known as the Yolŋu and Yuulngu languages), the indigenous people of northeast Arnhem Land in northern Australia. The ŋ in Yolŋu is pronounced as the ng in singing.
Yolŋu Matha consists of about six languages, some mutually intelligible, divided into about thirty clan varieties and perhaps twelve different dialects, each with its own Yolŋu name. Put together, there are about 4600 speakers of Yolŋu Matha languages. Exogamy has often meant that mothers and fathers speak different languages, so that children traditionally grew up at least bilingual, and in many cases polylingual, meaning that communication was facilitated by mastery of multiple languages and dialects of Yolŋu Matha. The linguistic situation is very complicated, given that each of the 30 or so clans also has a named language variety. Dixon (2002) distinguishes the following:[1]
| Djinba language | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Wan.gurri | Gamalaŋga | Gupapuyngu | Ritharngu | Yirritjing | Ganhalpuyngu (Ganalbiŋu) | |
| Lamamirri | Gorryindi | Gumatj | Wagilak | Wurlaki | Manjdjalpuyngu (Mandjalpiŋu) | |
| Rirratjingu | Mäḻarra | Djambarrpuyngu | Djardiwitjibi | |||
| Gaalpu | Bindarra | Djapu | Mildjingi | |||
| Ngayimil | Ngurruwulu | Liyagalawumirr | Balmbi | |||
| Warramiri | Walamangu | Guyamirlili | Djuwing | |||
| Mandatja | Dhalwangu | Marrangu | ||||
| Djarrwark | Murrungun | |||||
| Manyarring |
Bowern (2011) adds the varieties in parentheses as distinct languages.
The consonant inventory is basically the same across Yolŋu varieties, although some varieties show minor differences.[2]
| Peripheral | Apical | Laminal | Glottal | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bilabial | Velar | Alveolar | Dental | Retroflex | Palatal | Glottal | |||
| Plosive | Lenis | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| Fortis | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Nasals | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Rhotics | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||||
| Laterals | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||||
| Approximants | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||||
Yolŋu languages have a fortis–lenis contrast in plosive consonants. Lenis/short plosives have weak contact and intermittent voicing, while fortis/long plosives have full closure, a more powerful release burst, and no voicing.
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close | pronounced as /ink/, pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/, pronounced as /ink/ | ||
| Open | pronounced as /ink/, pronounced as /ink/ |
A three-way vowel distinction is shared between Yolŋu varieties, though not all Yolŋu varieties have a contrast in vowel length. In the varieties that do have a length contrast, long vowels occur only in the initial syllable of words.[3]
The films Ten Canoes (2006) and Charlie's Country (2013), both directed by Rolf de Heer and featuring actor David Gulpilil, feature dialogue in Yolŋu Matha. Ten Canoes was the first feature film to be shot entirely in Australian indigenous languages, with the dialogue largely in the Ganalbiŋu variety of Yolŋu Matha.
Dr. G. Yunupingu was a popular Australian singer who sang in the Gumatj dialect of Yolŋu Matha, as did the Aboriginal rock group Yothu Yindi.
Baker Boy, from the community of Milingimbi in North Eastern Arnhem Land released the song "Cloud 9" in 2017, in which he raps in Yolŋu Matha.[4] As Young Australian of the Year in 2019, the International Year of Indigenous Languages, and with two of his songs in the 2019 Triple J Hottest 100,[5] he raised the profile of Yolŋu Matha in mainstream media as well as giving people at home pride in their language.[6] [7] [8]
Dictionaries have been produced by Beulah Lowe, David Zorc and Michael Christie. A free, web-based searchable dictionary created by John Greatorex was launched in February 2015 by Charles Darwin University.
There are also several grammars of Yolŋu languages by Jeffrey Heath, Frances Morphy, Melanie Wilkinson and others.[9]
A graduate certificate in Yolŋu studies is offered at Charles Darwin University, teaching Yolŋu kinship, law and the Gupapuyŋu language variety.
ABC Indigenous News Radio broadcasts a news program in Yolngu Matha and also in Warlpiri on weekdays. The Aboriginal Resource and Development Services (ARDS) broadcast live radio in northeast Arnhem Land, Darwin and Palmerston and provide recordings of past programs on the internet.[10]
Like other languages of the Top End, Yolŋu-Matha contains many loanwords from Austronesian languages due to abundant contact with seafaring peoples from the Indonesian archipelago.[13] [14] [15] [16] Walker and Zorc have identified 179 Yolŋu-Matha words that are clearly of Austronesian origin, and have identified a further 70 possible Austronesian loanwords requiring further study.
| Yolngu word | Austronesian source language | Austronesian word | Meaning in English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| balaʔ | bállaʔ | house | ||
| balala | Makassarese | balála | greedy | |
| balaŋu | Makassarese | balaŋo | anchor | |
| baluka | Makassarese | palúkka | thief | |
| baːwʔ | Makassarese or Buginese | báuʔ | fragrance | |
| gaːruŋ | karoŋ | sack | ||
| barawu | Malay | perahu | boat |
Capell (1942) lists the following basic vocabulary items:[17]
| gloss | Wan‘guri | Warameri | Galbu | Riraidjango | Yanango | Golba | Gobabwingo | Djambarbwingo | Dalwongo | Ridarngo | Gomaidj | Manggalili | Maṙaṙba | Djinba | Yandjinang | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| man | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | Uncoded languages: jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | jọlŋọ | Uncoded languages: jọlŋọ | Uncoded languages: jọlŋọ | julŋi | djäriwidji | |
| woman | baɖami | baɖami | miälg | da‘iga | miälg | Uncoded languages: miälg | miälg | miälg | mareːbulu | diŋ‘ | daigaːwuru | Uncoded languages: daigaːwuru | Uncoded languages: miälg | miälg | miːlg | |
| head | muɽguɽ | muɽguɽu | mulguɽ | mulguɽ | daːmbu | Uncoded languages: daːmbu | lia | lia | mulguɽ | lia | lia | Uncoded languages: lia | Uncoded languages: mulguɽ | gungu | gɔɳgi | |
| eye | maŋudji | maŋudji | miːl, maŋudji | miːl | maŋudji | Uncoded languages: miːl | miːl | miːl | maŋudji | miːl | miːl | Uncoded languages: miːl | Uncoded languages: miːl | mili | mïːl | |
| nose | ŋọrọ | gamuru | ŋọrọ | ŋọrọ | gamuru | ŋọrọ | ŋọrọ | ŋọrọ | ŋọrọ | ŋọrọ | Uncoded languages: ŋọrọ | Uncoded languages: ŋọrọ | ŋɔrɛ | ŋɔrɛ | ||
| mouth | ḏa | djurwara | ḏa | ḏa | durwara | ḏa | ḏa | ḏa | ḏɛlŋ | ḏa | Uncoded languages: ḏa | Uncoded languages: ḏa | ɽari | ɽari | ||
| tongue | ŋaːnar | maḏa | maḏa | ŋaːnar | ŋaːnar | Uncoded languages: mada | maḏa | maḏa | ŋaːnar | maḏa | ŋaːnar | Uncoded languages: ŋaːnar | Uncoded languages: maḏa | djäliŋan | djɛlaŋ | |
| stomach | guru | gulun | gulun | dulmọ | gulun | Uncoded languages: gulun | gulun | gulun | dulmọ | gulun | gulun | Uncoded languages: gulun | Uncoded languages: gulun | gulun | budjiri | |
| bone | maṙiṙin | ŋaɽaga | ŋaɽaga | ŋaɽaga | maṙiṙin | ŋaɽaga | ŋaɽag | ŋaɽaga | ŋaɽaga | ŋaɽaga | Uncoded languages: ŋaɽaga | Uncoded languages: ŋaɽaga | ŋaɽaga | ŋiɽigɛ | ||
| blood | gulaŋ | jilaŋ | gulaŋ | gulaŋ | gulaŋ | Uncoded languages: gulaŋ | maŋgo, gulaŋ | maŋgo, gulaŋ | gulaŋ | gula | gulaŋ | Uncoded languages: wuɽuŋgul | Uncoded languages: gulaŋ | gulaŋ | bɔṙɛ | |
| kangaroo | wiːɖi | wiːɖi | mundbia | mulbia | wiːɖi | wiːɖi | wiːɖi | ganguɽul | ŋarggọ | mulbia | Uncoded languages: mulbia | Uncoded languages: mulbia | ŋarggọ | ŋargọ | ||
| possum | ɽubu | marŋo | marŋo | marŋo | marŋo | Uncoded languages: marŋo | marŋo | marŋo | ɽubu | marŋo | marŋo | Uncoded languages: ɽubu | Uncoded languages: marŋo | märŋo | marŋo | |
| emu | maluiːja | wurban | ’maluja | maluiːja | baɖaːwuma | wurban | wurban | wurban | wurban | |||||||
| crow | galgmanda | waːg | gälgäriŋọ | waːg | galgmanda | waːg | waːg | waːg | waːgia | waːg | Uncoded languages: waːg | Uncoded languages: waːg | waːgia | waːgire | ||
| fly | buad | gädiŋälọ | wurubul | buad | buad | wurulul | wurulul | gädiŋäli | buad | gädiŋälọ | Uncoded languages: gädiŋäli | Uncoded languages: wurulul | bolgi | muruläl | ||
| sun | walọ | walọ | walọ | walọ | bïːn | Uncoded languages: walọ | walọ | walọ | larŋgai | walir | walọ | Uncoded languages: walọ | Uncoded languages: walọ | djäɽbiɽ | walir | |
| moon | wa̱lmura | boːla | ŋaɭindi | wa̱lmura | walmura | Uncoded languages: wa̱lmura | ŋaɭindi | ŋaɭindi | ŋaɭindi | ŋaɭindi, gulgia | ŋaɭindi | Uncoded languages: wirmu | Uncoded languages: naɭindi | galgi | ɽangu | |
| fire | ŋurdja | ŋurdja | ḏäŋuḏa | ḏäŋuḏa | bwiːmar | Uncoded languages: guɽda̱ | guɽḏa | guɽḏa | ḏäŋuḏa | guɽḏa | goɽḏa | Uncoded languages: ’bujuga | Uncoded languages: ŋuɽa | djoŋgɛ | djoŋgɛ | |
| smoke | ŋawurŋawur | ḏiliwur | ŋäräli | ŋäräli | ḏiliwur | ḏiliwur | ḏiliwur | ŋäräli | baːn | ḏiliwur | diliwur | mälggɛ | ŋaɽimbi | |||
| water | ŋargula | gaɽmag | magadi | gabu | gabu | Uncoded languages: gabu | gabu | gabu | gudjärg | gabu | gabu | gudjäɽg | gabi | gabe |