| Yele | |
| Nativename: | Yélî Dnye |
| States: | Papua New Guinea |
| Region: | Rossel Island, Louisiade Archipelago |
| Coordinates: | -11.35°N 163°W |
| Speakers: | 5,000 |
| Date: | 2015 |
| Ref: | e25 |
| Familycolor: | Papuan |
| Fam1: | Yele – West New Britain languages ? Austronesian? |
| Iso3: | yle |
| Notice: | IPA |
| Glotto: | yele1255 |
| Glottorefname: | Yele |
| Pronunciation: | pronounced as /[jelɯ ʈɳʲɛ]/ |
The Yele language, or '''Yélî Dnye''' (pronounced as /yle/), is the language of Rossel Island, the easternmost island in the Louisiade Archipelago off the eastern tip of Papua New Guinea. There were an estimated 5,000 speakers in 2015, comprising the entire ethnic population. It is known for its many doubly articulated consonants. The language remains unclassified by linguists.
For now, the language is best considered unclassified. It has been classified as a tentative language isolate that may turn out to be related to the Anêm and Ata language isolates of New Britain (in a tentative Yele – West New Britain family), or alternatively closest to Sudest in the Papuan Tip languages of the Oceanic family. Typologically it is more similar to the Oceanic languages of southern New Guinea than to the isolates of New Britain. Word order tends to be subject–object–verb (SOV; verb-final).
Stebbins et al. (2018) classifies Yélî Dnye as an isolate. They explain similarities with Austronesian as being due to contact and diffusion.Usher classifies it as an Oceanic language, with regular sound correspondences obscured by the development of the doubly articulated consonants.
Yele has a uniquely rich set of doubly articulated consonants. In nearly all the languages of the world which have them, these are labial–velar consonants - that is, they are pronounced simultaneously with the lips and the back of the tongue, such as a simultaneous p and k. However, Yele is known to contrast other doubly articulated positions: besides labial–velar, it has two distinct labial–coronal articulations, all as both stops and nasals as illustrated below. There are also doubly articulated approximants: pronounced as /[l͡βʲ]/ as in lvámê (a type of cane) and pronounced as /[j͡β̞]/. The Yele pronounced as //w̪// is more precisely a labial–dental pronounced as /[β̞͡ð̞]/.[1] These doubly articulated consonants do not contrast with labialization except in the case of the labial - velars.
The two coronal articulations are
Palatalization occurs at all places of articulation. Stops may be either pre-nasalized or post-nasalized.
Altogether, there are 58 attested consonants (56 demonstrated with solid minimal pairs) and one more that is somewhat dubious. The attested inventory is as follows:
| +Consonants | Labial | Denti-alveolar | Postalveolar/retroflex | Velar | Labial-velar | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | lab. | pal. | lab-pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | lab-pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | lab-pal. | plain | lab. | pal. | plain | pal. | ||
| Nasal | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||
| Plosive | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ pronounced as /[t̪͡ɕ]/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |
| Prenasalized plosive | pronounced as /mb/ | pronounced as /mbʷ/ | pronounced as /mbʲ/ | pronounced as /mbʷʲ/ | pronounced as /n̪d̪/ | pronounced as /n̪͡md̪͡b/ | pronounced as /n̪d̪ʲ/ pronounced as /[n̪d̪͡ʑ]/ | pronounced as /n̪͡md̪͡bʲ/ | pronounced as /ɳɖ/ | pronounced as /ɳ͡mɖ͡b/ | pronounced as /ɳɖʲ/ | pronounced as /ŋɡ/ | pronounced as /ŋɡʷ/ | pronounced as /ŋ͡mɡ͡b/ | ||||
| (pronounced as /ʈɳ/ ?) | pronounced as /ʈ͡pɳ͡m/ | pronounced as /ʈɳʲ/ | pronounced as /ʈ͡pɳ͡mʲ/ | pronounced as /kŋ/ | pronounced as /kŋʷ/ | pronounced as /k͡pŋ͡m/ | ||||||||||||
| Fricative | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||||||||||||
| Lateral approximant | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /l͡βʲ/ | |||||||||||||||
| Approximant | pronounced as /ink/ pronounced as /[β̞͡ð̞]/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | |||||||||||||||
The oral stops apart from the dentialveolars are lightly voiced between vowels when the following vowel is short, but not when it is long. pronounced as //ʈ// is further reduced to a flap pronounced as /[ɽ]/. All prenasalized stops are fully voiced. The palatalized denti-alveolar stops pronounced as //t̪ʲ// and pronounced as //n̪d̪ʲ// are pronounced as affricates pronounced as /[t̪͡ɕ]/ and pronounced as /[n̪d̪͡ʑ]/.
pronounced as //ʈɳ// (orthographic dn) is only attested from the inflectional clitic -dniye, and it is not clear that it is distinct from well-attested palatalized pronounced as //ʈɳʲ// (for *-dnyiye) (Levinson 2022:45). Some palatalized and labialized consonants are only attested from a handful of words. A gap in the chart above, pronounced as /
Yele also has 34 vowels: ten oral qualities and seven nasal, all long and short:
| +Vowels | Front | Central | Back | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oral | Nasal | Oral | Nasal | Oral | Nasal | ||||||||
| pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||
| pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||
| pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||||||
| pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | ||||||
Vowels may occur long or short. SIL (1992/2004) interprets vowel sequences as being separated by pronounced as //j// or pronounced as //w// rather than being in hiatus. (Possibly redundant y or w are found in the sequences iy and uw followed by most short vowels.) Given that vowels may be long or short, Yele syllables may only be of the form V or CV, with V only being short pronounced as //a// or pronounced as //u// at the beginning of a word (assuming lack of hiatus within a word).
| Orthography | a | â | b | ch | d | e | é | ê | gh | i | î | j | k | l | m | n | ń | o | ó | p | t | u | v | w | y | ꞉ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | pronounced as /æ/ | pronounced as /ɑ/ | pronounced as /p/ | pronounced as /t̪ʲ/ | pronounced as /ʈ/ | pronounced as /ɛ/ | pronounced as /e/ | pronounced as /ə/ | pronounced as /ɣ/ | pronounced as /i/ | pronounced as /ɯ/ | pronounced as /t̪ʲ/ | pronounced as /k/ | pronounced as /l/ | pronounced as /m/ | pronounced as /ɳ/ | pronounced as /n̪/ | pronounced as /ɔ/ | pronounced as /o/ | pronounced as /p/ | pronounced as /t̪/ | pronounced as /u/ | pronounced as /β/ | pronounced as /w̪/ | pronounced as /j/ | pronounced as /◌̃/ |
The multigraphs for complex consonants are not always transparent. The labial-velar and labial-coronal consonants are written with the labial second: kp pronounced as //k͡p//, dp pronounced as //ʈ͡p//, tp pronounced as //t̪͡p//, ngm pronounced as //ŋ͡m//, nm pronounced as //ɳ͡m//, ńm pronounced as //n̪͡m//, lv pronounced as //l͡βʲ//. Prenasalized pronounced as //mp// is written mb, but pronounced as //nd̪// and pronounced as //ŋɡ// are written nt and nk to distinguish them from nd pronounced as //nɖ// and ng pronounced as //ŋ//. Prenasalized stops are written with an m when labial, including the doubly articulated stops md pronounced as //ɳ͡mɖ͡b//, mg pronounced as //ŋ͡mɡ͡b// and mt pronounced as //n̪͡md̪͡b//, and with n otherwise. Nasal release is likewise written n or m, as in dny pronounced as //ʈɳʲ//, kn pronounced as //kŋ//, dm pronounced as //ʈ͡pɳ͡m//, km pronounced as //k͡pŋ͡m//. Labialization is written w, and palatalization y, apart from ch for pronounced as //t̪ʲ// and nj for pronounced as //nd̪ʲ//.
Of the vowels, only a and u occur initially. Long vowels are written double, and nasal vowels with a preceding colon (꞉a for pronounced as //ã//), except for short vowels after an orthographic nasal consonant, where vowel nasality is not contrastive.
Yele has been studied extensively by cognitive linguists. It has an extensive set of spatial postpositions. Yele has eleven postpositions equivalent to English on; using different ones depending factors such as whether the object is on a table (horizontal), a wall (vertical), or atop a peak; whether or not it is attached to the surface; and whether it is solid or granular (distributed).
Yele has a set of free pronouns and a set of bound possessive pronouns.
| Singular | Dual | Plural | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | Yele | English | Yele | English | Yele | ||
| 1st person | free | I | pronounced as /ɳə/ | we two | pronounced as /n̪o/ | we | pronounced as /ɳ͡mo/ |
| bound | pronounced as /a/ | pronounced as /n̪i/ | pronounced as /ɳ͡mɯ/ | ||||
| 2nd person | free | thou | pronounced as /n̪i/ | you two | pronounced as /ʈ͡pũ/ | you | pronounced as /n̪͡mo/ |
| bound | pronounced as /N-/ | pronounced as /ʈ͡pɯ/ | pronounced as /n̪͡me/ | ||||
| 3rd person | free | he/she | – | they two | – | they | pronounced as /–/ |
| bound | pronounced as /u/ | pronounced as /ji/ | |||||
There are three different types of taboos present in Yélî Dnye: vocabulary avoided by women, vocabulary avoided when in the presence of in-laws, and vocabulary related to sacred places. However, since the language has fallen into disuse, many of this special vocabulary is no longer used.
Additionally, special registers and terms are used when discussing shell money (kêndapî), at a mortuary feast (kpaakpaa) and during songs.
As a form of women's speech, women avoid certain words, especially those related to the sea. Instead, other words are substituted.
| Men's term | Women's term | Gloss | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ntii | tpili | sea | |
| nt꞉ee | tpyele | sea (locative) | |
| nee | dyudu | canoe | |
| kwede | kódu yââ/mtene pyu | bailer shell | |
| lyé | pele yââ | coconut mat | |
| mbwaa | tolo | fresh water | |
| Lów꞉a | mwada tpli pee | Lów꞉a isle |
Since great respect is shown to in-laws on Rossel Island, speakers of Yélî Dnye will not say their in-laws' names, will only speak of each in-law using the polite third-person plural pronoun yi, and will replace certain words when speaking near them. While the alternative vocabulary is mostly no longer used, the name and pronoun taboos are still observed.
Most of the taboo words are body parts, clothing or carried possessions. Not all body words are replaced, however: for example, 'neck', 'Adam's apple' and 'stomach' retain their everyday forms.
| Everyday term | In-law term | Gloss | |
|---|---|---|---|
| ngwolo | yi wuché / yi chéé dê | eye | |
| kópu | yi kp꞉aa têdê | words | |
| kêê | yi kéépi | hand | |
| yodo | yi mbwene | belly | |
| péé | yi mgéé | basket | |
| kada | ghââ | in front of | |
| tpe/tpoo | yi tapa | vagina |
Selected basic vocabulary items in Yélî Dnye:
| gloss | Yélî Dnye | |
|---|---|---|
| bird | ńmê
| |
| blood | wêê | |
| bone | dînê | |
| breast | ngmo | |
| ear | ngweńe | |
| eat | ma | |
| egg | w꞉uu | |
| eye | ngwolo | |
| fire | ndê
| |
| give | yeede | |
| go | lê
| |
| ground | mbwóó
| |
| hair | gh꞉aa | |
| head | mbodo | |
| leg | yi | |
| louse | y꞉emê wee | |
| man | pi | |
| moon | d꞉ââ | |
| name | pi | |
| one | ngmidi | |
| road, path | maa | |
| see | m꞉uu | |
| sky | mbóó
| |
| stone | chêêpî | |
| sun | kââdî | |
| tongue | dêê | |
| tooth | nyóó | |
| tree | yi | |
| two | miyó | |
| water | mbwaa
| |
| woman | kumbwada
|
Yélî Dnye:
Kiye w꞉ââ u pi Peetuuki, ka kwo, Doongê. Nê kuu. Daa a w꞉ââ. Nkal u w꞉ââ. Nkal ngê yinê kaa ngê. W꞉ââ dono. Pi yilî u te. U nuu u pi da tóó. Pi u lama daa tóó. M꞉iituwo Yidika, Mépé tp꞉oo mî kiye ngê. Daanté. Mépé dono ngê pyodo. Apê, W꞉ââ mbwámê nînê châpwo. Nkal ngê kwo, "Up꞉o" . W꞉ââ mî mbêpê wo, chii mênê. Mépé ngê w꞉ââ mbwámê mêdîpê châpwo. Awêde ka kwo, Doongê. Pi maa daa t꞉a. A danêmbum u dî.
Yélî Dnye in the International Phonetic Alphabet:
pronounced as /kijɛ w̪ɑ̃ː u pi pɛːt̪uːki, ka kʷɔ, ʈɔːŋə ɳə kuː ʈaː a w̪ɑ̃ː ŋɡal u w̪ɑ̃ː ŋɡal ŋə jiɳə kaː ŋə w̪ɑ̃ː ʈɔɳɔ pi jilɯ u t̪ɛ u ɳuː u pi ʈa t̪oː pi u lama ʈaː t̪oː mĩːtuw̪ɔ jiʈika, mepe t̪͡pɔ̃ː mɯ kijɛ ŋə ʈaːn̪d̪e mepe ʈoɳo ŋə pʲɔʈɔ apə, w̪ɑ̃ː mbʷæmə ɳɯɳə tʲɑpʷɔ ŋɡal ŋə kʷɔ upɔ̃ w̪ɑ̃ː mɯ mbəpə w̪ɔ, tʲiː məɳə mepe ŋə w̪ɑ̃ː mbʷæmə məʈɯpə tʲɑpʷɔ aw̪əʈɛ ka kʷɔ, ʈɔːŋə pi maː ʈaː t̪ã a ʈaɳəmbum u tɯ /
Translation:
The savage dog is called "Peetuuki", and he lives at Doongê. It's nothing to do with me. It's not my dog. It's Nkal's dog. He raised it. It's a bad dog. It bites everyone. It doesn't like anyone. Recently it bit Mépé's son, Yidika. It really bit him hard. Mépé became very angry, and said, 'I'm going to kill that dog'. The dog ran away into the bush, so Mépé could not kill it. So now it's still there at Doongê, so there's not a safe road through there. That's the end of my story.(SIL 1992/2004)