World War I casualties explained

The total number of military and civilian casualties in World War I was about 40 million: estimates range from around 15 to 22 million deaths[1] and about 23 million wounded military personnel, ranking it among the deadliest conflicts in human history.

The total number of deaths includes from 9 to 11 million military personnel. The civilian death toll was about 6 to 13 million.[2] The Triple Entente (also known as the Allies) lost about 6 million military personnel while the Central Powers lost about 4 million. At least 2 million died from diseases and 6 million went missing, presumed dead. This article lists the casualties of the belligerent powers based on official published sources.

About two-thirds of military deaths in World War I were in battle, unlike the conflicts that took place in the 19th century when the majority of deaths were due to disease. Nevertheless, disease, including the 1918 flu pandemic and deaths while held as prisoners of war, still caused about one third of total military deaths for all belligerents.

Classification of casualty statistics

Casualty statistics for World War I vary to a great extent; estimates of total deaths range from 9 million to over 15 million.[3] Military casualties reported in official sources list deaths due to all causes, including an estimated 7 to 8 million combat related deaths (killed or died of wounds) and another two to three million military deaths caused by accidents, disease and deaths while prisoners of war. Official government reports listing casualty statistics were published by the United States and Great Britain.[4] [5] These secondary sources published during the 1920s, are the source of the statistics in reference works listing casualties in World War I.[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] This article summarizes the casualty statistics published in the official government reports of the United States and Great Britain as well as France, Italy, Belgium, Germany, Austria and Russia. More recently the research of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) has revised the military casualty statistics of the UK and its allies; they include in their listing of military war dead personnel outside of combat theaters and civilians recruited from Africa, the Middle East and China who provided logistical and service support in combat theaters.[11] [12] [13] [14] [15] The casualties of these support personnel recruited outside of Europe were previously not included with British war dead, however the casualties of the Labour Corps recruited from the British Isles were included in the rolls of British war dead published in 1921.[16] The methodology used by each nation to record and classify casualties was not uniform, a general caveat regarding casualty figures is that they cannot be considered comparable in all cases.[17] First World War civilian deaths are "hazardous to estimate" according to Micheal Clodfelter who maintains that "the generally accepted figure of noncombatant deaths is 6.5 million."[18]

Casualties in the borders of 1914–1918

NationPopulation (millions)Combat deaths and missing in action (included in total military deaths)Total military deaths (from all causes)Civilian deaths (military action and crimes against humanity)Increase in civilian deaths (malnutrition and disease excluding Influenza pandemic)Total deathsDeaths as % of populationMilitary wounded
Allies and co-belligerents of World War I
align=left 5.061,527[19] 59,330[20]
to 62,149		59,330
to 62,149		1.2%
to 1.2%		152,171[21]
align=left 7.256,638[22] 56,639
to 64,996 		1,963[23] [24] 58,639
to 66,996		%
to %		149,732
align=left 315.164,44964,449
to 73,905		64,449
to 73,905		%
to %		69,214
align=left 1.118,166[25] 16,711
to 18,060		16,711
to 18,060		%
to %		41,317
align=left 0.21,2041,204
to 1,570[26] (included with UK)		1,204
to 1,570		%
to %		2,314
align=left 6.07,1217,121
to 9,726		7,121
to 9,726		%
to %		12,029
align=left (and colonies) 45.4744,000887,85816,829[27] 107,000[28] to 400,000[29] 867,829
to 1,011,687		%
to %		1,675,000
align=left 380.0953,104949,454
to 1,118,264		18,829107,0001,077,283
to 1,244,093		%
to %		2,101,077
align=left 7.438,17038,170[30]
to 58,637[31] 		23,700[32] 62,000[33] 123,870
to 144,337		%
to %		44,686
align=left 39.61,150,000[34] [35] 1,357,000
to 1,397,800[36] 		40,000[37] [38] 300,000 to 600,0001,697,000
to 1,737,800		%
to %		4,266,000[39]
align=left 4.85,0005,000
to 26,000[40] 		150,000[41] 155,000
to 176,000		%
to %		21,000
align=left 35.6460,000460,000
to 709,000[42] [43] 		3,400[44] 332,000 to 589,000[45] 1,052,400
to 1,301,400		%
to %		947,000 to 1,050,000
align=left 53.6300300
to 4,661[46] 		300
to 4,661		%
to %		907
align=left 0.53,0003,000
to 13,325		3,000
to 13,325		%
to %		10,000
align=left 6.07,2227,22213[47] 82,000[48] 89,235%13,751
align=left 7.5335,706250,000
to 335,706		130,000[49] 200,000580,000
to 665,706		%
to %		120,000
align=left 175.1775,369 to 1,700,0001,700,000 to
2,254,369[50] 		410,000[51] 730,0002,840,000 to
3,394,369		% to %3,749,000 to
4,950,000
align=left 4.5127,500300,000[52]
to 450,000[53] 		450,000
to 800,000		750,000
to 1,250,000 		%
to %		133,148
align=left 92.053,402[54] 116,708[55] [56] 757[57] 117,466%204,002
align=left 806.64,833,4045,186,854
to 6,433,692		626,6993,420,000
to 3,770,000		9,235,553
to 10,080,391		%
to %		11,611,271
to 12,812,271
Central Powers
align=left 51.41,016,200[58] [59] 1,200,000[60]
to 1,494,200		120,000[61] 467,000[62] 1,787,000
to 2,081,200		%
to %		3,620,000
align=left 4.587,50087,500100,000[63] 187,500%152,390
align=left 64.91,800,000[64] [65] 2,037,000[66] 720[67] 300,000 to 763,000[68] [69] 2,198,420
to 2,800,720		% to
%		4,215,662
align=left style="white-space:nowrap" 21.3305,085[70] 325,000
to 771,844[71] 		1,500,000[72] 1,000,000[73] 2,825,000
to 3,271,844		%
to %		400,000
to 763,753
align=left 142.13,208,7853,386,200
to 4,390,544		1,620,7201,991,000
to 2,330,000		6,997,920
to 8,341,264		%
to %		8,388,052
to 8,751,805
Neutral nations
align=left 2.8See footnote re: Danes in German military700[74] 700%—
align=left 0.32,800See footnote
align=left 2.41,1801,180%—
align=left 10.5[75] 2,000,000[76] 2,000,000%—
align=left 5.6800800%—
align=left 0.7 to 0.8[77] 70,000[78] 8.75% to 10%—
align=left Liechtenstein0.0087[79] 4[80] 40.05%—
align=left Grand total959.78,042,1898,573,058
to 10,824,240		2,250,0995,411,000
to 8,100,000		15,000,000 to 22,000,000%
to %		22,101,100
to 23,665,873
The source of population data is: Haythornthwaite, Philip J., The World War One Source Book pp. 382–383[81]

Casualties by post-war (1924) borders

The war involved multi-ethnic empires such as Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey. Many ethnic groups in these territories were conscripted for military service. The casualties listed by modern borders are also included in the above table of figures for the countries that existed in 1914. The casualty figures by 1924 post war borders are rough estimates by Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, the sources of his figures were published in the Soviet era and in post-Soviet Russia.[82] According to the 1914–1918 Online Encyclopedia "In addition to losses suffered by African military personnel and the laborers supporting their operations, very large, but unknown numbers of African civilians perished during the war." They made an estimate of civilian losses in Africa of 750,000 based on the study by the Vadim Erlikman. They noted that Erlikman's figures are based on the work of the Russian demographer Boris Urlanis, they noted that these estimates were "imprecise" and "could be used to provide a frame of reference for further inquiry".[83] The Oxford History of World War One notes that "In east and central Africa the harshness of the war resulted in acute shortages of food with famine in some areas, a weakening of populations, and epidemic diseases which killed hundreds of thousands of people and also cattle."[84]

The following estimates of Austrian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 175,000: including military losses 120,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 30,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 25,000.[85]

The following estimates of Belarusian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 130,000: including military losses 70,000 with the Russian forces. Civilian dead were 60,000.[86]

The following estimates of Ukrainian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 590,000: including military losses 450,000,(Erlikman did not break out military losses between Austro-Hungarian and Russian armed forces). Civilian dead were 140,000.[87]

The Belgian Congo was part of the Kingdom of Belgium during the war. A Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia estimated a total of 155,000 deaths in the Belgian Congo during the war.

Czechoslovakia was part of Austro-Hungary during the war. The estimates of Czechoslovak deaths within 1991 borders were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 185,000: including military losses 110,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 45,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 30,000.[88] The Czechoslovak Legions fought with the armies of the Allies during the war.

Estonia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 100,000 Estonians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed.[89]

From 1809 Finland was an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. Finland's autonomous status meant that Finns were exempt from conscription into the Russian Army. Approximately 800 Finns voluntarily served during World War I.[90] According to data regarding Finnish war casualties, 317 Finns were killed between 1914 and 1917.[91]

The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[92] These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000.[93]

(1914 known as French Algeria): 26,000

(1914 known as French Indochina): 12,000

(1914 part of French West Africa): 10,000

(1914 known as the French protectorate of Morocco): 8,000

(1914 part of French West Africa): 6,000

(1914 part of French West Africa): 2,500

2,500 military

(1914 part of French West Africa): 2,000

(1914 part of French West Africa): 2,000

(1914 part of French Equatorial Africa): 2,000

(1914 part of French West Africa): 2,000

(1914 known as French Tunisia): 2,000

(1914 part of French Equatorial Africa): 1,500

(1914 known as French Oubangui-Chari): 1,000

(1914 part of French West Africa): 1,000

(1914 part of French Equatorial Africa): 500

India (French Establishments in India): 195
Total: 82,000

The following estimates of Georgian deaths, within contemporary borders, were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Georgia was part of the Russian Empire during the war and about 150,000 Georgians served in the Russian Army. Of them about 10,000 were killed.

The following estimates of deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[94] These numbers only include military deaths, total civilian deaths in Africa could amount up to 750,000.

(1914 part of German East Africa): 20,000

(1914 known as German South-West Africa): 1,000

(1914 known as Kamerun): 5,000 military and 50,000 civilian

Togo (1914 known as German Togoland): 2,000

(1914 part of German East Africa): 15,000
Total: 48,000

The following estimates of Hungarian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead 385,000: including military losses 270,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 70,000. Civilian dead due to famine and disease were 45,000.[95]

Ireland was a part of the United Kingdom during World War I. Five-sixths of the island left to form the Irish Free State, now the Republic of Ireland, in 1922. A total of 206,000 Irishmen served in the British forces during the war.[96] The number of Irish deaths in the British Army recorded by the registrar general was 27,405.[97] A significant number of these casualties were from what, in 1920, became Northern Ireland. While 49,400 soldiers died serving in Irish divisions (the 10th, 16th and 36th), although not all of the men serving in these divisions were natives of Ireland and many Irish who died in non-Irish regiments are not listed.[98] [99] For example, 29% of the casualties in the 16th Division were not natives of Ireland. Neither does it include Irish emigrants in Britain who enlisted there and are not categorised as Irish. Australia lists 4,731 of its first World War soldiers as having been born in Ireland and more than 19,000 Irish-born soldiers served in the Canadian Corps. According to research done by John Horne of Trinity College Dublin, there are at least 30,986 soldiers who were born in Ireland that died; however, that's considered a "conservative" estimate and is very likely to raise.[100]

The losses of Portuguese Mozambique were estimated by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia. 52,000

Poland was territory of Germany, Austria-Hungary and partially annexed by Russia, from 1795 to 1918. By late 1915, Germany had complete control over modern-day Poland. A 2005 Polish study estimated 3,376,800 Poles were conscripted into the armed forces of these countries during World War I, an additional 300,000 were conscripted for forced labor by the Germans. The Russians and Austrians forcibly resettled 1.6 to 1.8 million persons from the war zone in Poland.[101] According to Micheal Clodfelter, Polish war dead were 1,080,000, whilst 200,000 Polish civilians were killed in the fighting on the Eastern Front; 870,000 men served in the German, Austrian and Russian armies. Another estimate made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century, put total Polish war dead at 640,000, including military losses of 270,000 Poles conscripted, civilian losses of 120,000 due to military operations and 250,000 caused by famine and disease.[102] The ethnic Polish Blue Army served with the French Army. The ethnic Polish Legions fought as part of the Austro-Hungarian Army on the Eastern Front.

The territory of Transylvania was part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. The following estimates of Romanian deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 748,000, including military losses of 220,000 with the Romanian forces, 150,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces and POW deaths in captivity of 48,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 200,000, killed in military operations 120,000 and 10,000 dead in Austrian prisons.

Britain recruited Indian, Chinese, native South African, Egyptian and other overseas labour to provide logistical support in the combat theatres.[103] Included with British casualties in East Africa are the deaths of 44,911 recruited labourers.[104] The CWGC reports that nearly 2,000 workers from the Chinese Labour Corps are buried with British war dead in France.[105]

The following estimates of British Empire colonial military deaths, within contemporary borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian Vadim Erlikman in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Erlikman's estimates are based on sources published in the Soviet Union and Russia.[106]

(1914 known as the Gold Coast): 1,200

(1914 known as British East Africa): 2,000

(1914 known as Nyasaland): 3,000

(1914 part of British West Africa): 5,000

(1914 part of British West Africa): 1,000

(1914 known as the Uganda Protectorate): 1,500

(1914 known as Northern Rhodesia): 3,000

(1914 known as Southern Rhodesia): 5,716 persons of European origin served in the war, of whom about 700 were killed, or died of wounds or other causes. In explicitly Rhodesian units, 127 were killed, 24 died of wounds, 101 died of disease or other causes and 294 were wounded. Of the territory's black African servicemen, 31 were killed in action, 142 died of other causes and 116 were wounded.[107]
Total: 18,000

The following estimates are for Yugoslavia within the 1991 borders.

Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Vojvodina (Now part of Serbia) were part of Austria-Hungary during World War I. Serbia, which included Macedonia, and Montenegro was an independent nation. The Yugoslav historian Vladimir Dedijer put the total losses of the Yugoslav lands at 1.9 million, of which 43% were from Serbia.[108] The following estimates of Yugoslav deaths, within 1991 borders, during World War I were made by a Russian historian in a 2004 handbook of human losses in the 20th century. Total dead: 996,000 including military losses, 260,000 with the Serbian forces, 80,000 with the Austro-Hungarian forces, 13,000 with Montenegrin forces and POW deaths in captivity of 93,000. Civilian dead were as follows due to famine and disease: 400,000, killed in military operations: 120,000 and 30,000 dead in Austrian prisons or executed.[109]

During World War I, the Nepalese army was expanded and six new regiments, totaling more than 20,000 troops—all volunteers—were sent to India, most of them to the North-West Frontier Province, to release British and Indian troops for service overseas. Simultaneously, the Nepalese government agreed to maintain recruitment at a level that would sustain the existing British Gurkha units and allow the establishment of additional ones. The battalions were increased to thirty-three with the addition of 55,000 new recruits and Gurkha units were placed at the disposal of the British high command for service on all fronts. Many volunteers were assigned to non-combat units, such as the Army Bearer Corps and the labour battalions but they also were in combat in France, Turkey, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The Rana prime ministers urged Nepalese males to fight in the war. Of the more than 200,000 Nepalese who served in the British army, there were some 20,000 Gurkha casualties included above with the British Indian Army.[110]

Footnotes

East and Central Africa

Australia

Belgium

Canada

France

Greece

India (British)

Italy

Japan

Montenegro

New Zealand

Newfoundland

Portugal

Romania

Russian Empire

Serbia

South Africa

United Kingdom

United States

Austria-Hungary

Bulgaria

German Empire

Ottoman Empire

Denmark

Luxembourg

Norway

Qajar Persia

Sweden

Albania

Liechtenstein

Sources

The source of population data is:

See also

Further reading

Other languages

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: World War I - Killed, wounded, and missing | Britannica. Britannica.com. 5 December 2021.
  2. Web site: War Losses | International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1). Encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. 5 December 2021.
  3. Web site: Twentieth Century Atlas – Death Tolls . necrometrics.com . 14 April 2018.
  4. Military Casualties – World War – Estimated. Statistics Branch, GS, War Department, 25 February 1924
  5. The War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920
  6. Web site: Military Casualties of World War One . 2 May 2015.
  7. Web site: World War One Casualty and death tables . . https://web.archive.org/web/20161016014336/http://www.pbs.org/greatwar/resources/casdeath_pop.html . 16 October 2016 . dead . 2 May 2015.
  8. The European Powers in the First World War: An Encyclopedia Spencer C. Tucker Garland Publishing, New York 1999
  9. John Ellis, The World War I Databook, Aurum Press, 2001, pp. 269–70
  10. World War I: People, Politics, and Power, published by Britannica Educational Publishing (2010) p. 219
  11. Web site: Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2014–2015 p. 38 . Commonwealth War Graves Commission . 24 May 2016. Figures include identified burials and those commemorated by name on memorials
  12. Web site: World Lijssenthoek Military Cemetery, Poperinge, Ypres Salient Battlefields, Belgium (The Chinese Labour Corps was used to clear battlefields, dig graves, trenches and carry out other such tasks which were often difficult and dangerous.) . 2 May 2015.
  13. Web site: Mombasa African Memorial (The non-combatant porters, stevedores and followers of the Military Labour Corps 600,000. Almost 50,000 of these men were lost, killed in action died of sickness or wounds) . 26 April 2015.
  14. Web site: The Long, Long Trail is a personal website written by Chris Baker . The Labour Corps of 1917–1918 . 26 April 2015 . 26 April 2015.
  15. Web site: The Chinese Labour Corps at the Western Front (In all, nearly 2,000 men from the Chinese Labour Corps died during the First World War, some as a direct result of enemy action, or of wounds received in the course of their duties but many more in the influenza epidemic that swept Europe in 1918–19 . 26 April 2015.
  16. Web site: Soldiers died in the great war, 1914–1919, London : Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1920–1921, 80 pts. in 17 v (pt. 80. Labour corps, Royal army ordnance corps, veterinary corps and pay corps, Channel Isles militia, corps of army schoolmasters, military mounted police, military foot police) . . 21 November 2014.
  17. Web site: International Encyclopedia of the First World War, Antoine Prost, War Losses . 2 May 2015.
  18. Clodfelter, Micheal (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts – A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–2000 2nd Ed.. . p. 479
  19. Web site: Deaths as a result of service with Australian units | Australian War Memorial. Awm.gov.au. 5 December 2021.
  20. Web site: Statistics of the military effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1920 . Great Britain. War Office . 14 April 2018 . London H.M. Stationery Off . 14 April 2018 . Internet Archive.
  21. Web site: Statistics of the military effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1920 . Great Britain. War Office . 14 April 2018 . London H.M. Stationery Off . 14 April 2018 . Internet Archive.
  22. Web site: Canada Year Book (CYB) Historical Collection . Statistics . Canada . www65.statcan.gc.ca . 31 March 2008 . 14 April 2018.
  23. Web site: Website Update – Nova Scotia Archives . novascotia.ca . 14 April 2018.
  24. Web site: Wartime Tragedies – The Halifax Explosion – Canada and the First World War . Canada and the First World War . 14 April 2018.
  25. Web site: Auckland War Memorial Museum . aucklandmuseum.com . 14 April 2018.
  26. Web site: Newfoundland and Labrador Studies . journals.hil.unb.ca . 14 April 2018.
  27. Gilbert, Martin (1994). Atlas of World War I. Oxford UP. (908 civilians killed in naval attacks)
  28. Hersch, L., La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. pp. 47–61
  29. Book: Kramer, Alan. The Cambridge History of the First World War. 18: Blockade and Economic Warfare. 3. Jay. Winter. 2014. 10.1017/CHO9780511675676. 9780511675676.
  30. Web site: Statistics of the military effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1920 . Great Britain. War Office . 14 April 2018 . London H.M. Stationery Off . 14 April 2018 . Internet Archive.
  31. http://extranet.arch.be//BIB_A4P131/BIB_A4P131_1915-1919.pdf#search=%22belgique%22 Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge 1915–1919. Bruxelles. 1922 p. 100
  32. http://extranet.arch.be//BIB_A4P131/BIB_A4P131_1915-1919.pdf#search=%22belgique%22 Annuaire statistique de la Belgique et du Congo Belge 1915–1919. Bruxelles. 1922 p. 100
  33. Hersch, L., La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. pp. 59–62
  34. Huber, Michel (1931). La Population de la France pendant la guerre. Paris. p. 420. The figure includes killed, missing in action and died of wounds excluding died of disease
  35. Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918 Volume III – Special Problems and Services (1st edition, 1943) p. 870
  36. Huber, Michel (1931). La Population de la France pendant la guerre. Paris p. 414
  37. Ellis, John (1993). World War I–Databook. Aurum Press., p. 269
  38. Randal Grey. Chronicle of World War I, Vol2 Facts on File 1991 p. 292
  39. Military Casualties-World War-Estimated," Statistics Branch, GS, War Department, 25 February 1924; cited in World War I: People, Politics, and Power, published by Britannica Educational Publishing (2010) p. 219
  40. Urlanis, Boris (1971). Wars and Population. Moscow p. 209
  41. Hersch, L., La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. pp. 80–81
  42. Mortara, G (1925). La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 28–29
  43. Web site: War Losses (Italy); International Encyclopedia of the First World War (WW1). Encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net. 27 June 2023.
  44. Mortara, G (1925). La Salute pubblica in Italia durante e dopo la Guerra. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 56–57
  45. Hersch, L., La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron – The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. pp. 52–59
  46. International Labour Office, Enquête sur la production. Rapport général. Paris [etc.] Berger-Levrault, 1923–25. Tom 4, II Les tués et les disparus p. 29
  47. Book: Martins, Ferreira . Portugal na Grande Guerra . Empresa Editorial Ática . 1934 . Lisboa .
  48. Hersch, L., La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. pp. 61–64
  49. Erlikman, Vadim (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik. Moscow. p. 51 .
  50. Web site: РОССИЯ И СССР В ВОЙНАХ XX ВЕКА. Глава II. ПЕРВАЯ МИРОВАЯ ВОЙНА . RUS†SKY . ru . 11 August 2018.
  51. Erlikman, Vadim (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik. Moscow. p. 18 .(Civilians killed on Eastern Front)
  52. Hersch, L., La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale, Metron- The International Review of Statistics, 1927, Vol 7. pp. 65–76
  53. Frédéric Le Moal, La Serbie du martyre à la Victoire 1914–1918, 2008, éditions 14–18 (2013), p. 231
  54. http://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, va.gov
  55. Web site: Congressional Research Service, American War and Military Operations Casualties: Lists and Statistics . fas.org . 14 April 2018.
  56. Web site: United States Coast Guard Coast Guard History . uscg.mil . https://archive.today/20120805220127/http://www.uscg.mil/history/faqs/wars.asp . 5 August 2012 . dead . 14 April 2018.
  57. Web site: Merchant Marine in World War I . usmm.org . 14 April 2018 . 8 April 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180408091437/http://www.usmm.org/ww1.html . dead .
  58. Ellis, John (1993). World War I Databook: The Essential Facts and Figures for All the Combatants. London: Aurum Press. . p. 269
  59. Österreichisches Bundesministerium für Herreswesen (1938). Österreich-Ungarns letzer Krieg, 1914–1918 Vol. 7. Vienna. VII, Beilage 37
  60. Web site: Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire During the Great War 1914–1920, The War Office, p. 357. https://web.archive.org/web/20120730173252/http://www.vlib.us/wwi/resources/britishwwi.pdf. dead. 30 July 2012. 5 December 2021.
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  182. Web site: Medical services; casualties and medical statistics of the great war, by Major T. J. Mitchell and Miss G. M. Smith p. 12 . 20 November 2014.
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  184. Casualties and Medical Statistics of the Great War p. 12 lists a total of 352,458 missing and prisoners of war; included in this total were 191,412 prisoners of whom 16,332 died in captivity.
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  187. Grebler, Leo (1940). The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Yale University Press.
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