Instructions per second explained

Instructions per second (IPS) is a measure of a computer's processor speed. For complex instruction set computers (CISCs), different instructions take different amounts of time, so the value measured depends on the instruction mix; even for comparing processors in the same family the IPS measurement can be problematic. Many reported IPS values have represented "peak" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches and no cache contention, whereas realistic workloads typically lead to significantly lower IPS values. Memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations. Because of these problems, synthetic benchmarks such as Dhrystone are now generally used to estimate computer performance in commonly used applications, and raw IPS has fallen into disuse.

The term is commonly used in association with a metric prefix (k, M, G, T, P, or E) to form kilo instructions per second (kIPS), mega instructions per second (MIPS), giga instructions per second (GIPS) and so on. Formerly TIPS was used occasionally for "thousand IPS".

Computing

IPS can be calculated using this equation:^[1]

IPS = sockets x (cores)/(socket) x clock x (Is)/(cycle)

However, the instructions/cycle measurement depends on the instruction sequence, the data and external factors.

Thousand instructions per second (TIPS/kIPS)

Before standard benchmarks were available, average speed rating of computers was based on calculations for a mix of instructions with the results given in kilo instructions per second (kIPS). The most famous was the Gibson Mix,^[2] produced by Jack Clark Gibson of IBM for scientific applications in 1959. Other ratings, such as the ADP mix which does not include floating point operations, were produced for commercial applications. The thousand instructions per second (kIPS) unit is rarely used today, as most current microprocessors can execute at least a million instructions per second.

The Gibson Mix

Gibson divided computer instructions into 12 classes, based on the IBM 704 architecture, adding a 13th class to account for indexing time. Weights were primarily based on analysis of seven scientific programs run on the 704, with a small contribution from some IBM 650 programs. The overall score was then the weighted sum of the average execution speed for instructions in each class.^[3]

The Gibson Mix	%
1. Loads and Store	31.2
2. Fixed Point Add and Subtract	6.1
3. Compares	3.8
4. Branches	16.6
5. Floating Add and Subtract	6.9
6. Floating Multiply	3.8
7. Floating Divide	1.5
8. Fixed Point Multiply	0.6
9. Fixed Point Divide	0.2
10. Shifting	4.4
11. Logical, And, Or, etc.	1.6
12. Instructions Not Using Registers	5.3
13. Indexing	18
Total	100

Millions of instructions per second (MIPS)

Instructions per second should not be confused with MIPS architecture.

The speed of a given CPU depends on many factors, such as the type of instructions being executed, the execution order and the presence of branch instructions (problematic in CPU pipelines). CPU instruction rates are different from clock frequencies, usually reported in Hz, as each instruction may require several clock cycles to complete or the processor may be capable of executing multiple independent instructions simultaneously. MIPS can be useful when comparing performance between processors made with similar architecture (e.g. Microchip branded microcontrollers), but they are difficult to compare between differing CPU architectures.^[4] This led to the term "Meaningless Indicator of Processor Speed,"^[5] or less commonly, "Meaningless Indices of Performance," ^[6] being popular amongst technical people by the mid-1980s.

For this reason, MIPS has become not a measure of instruction execution speed, but task performance speed compared to a reference. In the late 1970s, minicomputer performance was compared using VAX MIPS, where computers were measured on a task and their performance rated against the VAX-11/780 that was marketed as a 1 MIPS machine. (The measure was also known as the VAX Unit of Performance or VUP.) This was chosen because the 11/780 was roughly equivalent in performance to an IBM System/370 model 158–3, which was commonly accepted in the computing industry as running at 1 MIPS.

Many minicomputer performance claims were based on the Fortran version of the Whetstone benchmark, giving Millions of Whetstone Instructions Per Second (MWIPS). The VAX 11/780 with FPA (1977) runs at 1.02 MWIPS.

Effective MIPS speeds are highly dependent on the programming language used. The Whetstone Report has a table showing MWIPS speeds of PCs via early interpreters and compilers up to modern languages. The first PC compiler was for BASIC (1982) when a 4.8 MHz 8088/87 CPU obtained 0.01 MWIPS. Results on a 2.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo (1 CPU 2007) vary from 9.7 MWIPS using BASIC Interpreter, 59 MWIPS via BASIC Compiler, 347 MWIPS using 1987 Fortran, 1,534 MWIPS through HTML/Java to 2,403 MWIPS using a modern C/C++ compiler.

For the most early 8-bit and 16-bit microprocessors, performance was measured in thousand instructions per second (1000 kIPS = 1 MIPS).

zMIPS refers to the MIPS measure used internally by IBM to rate its mainframe servers (zSeries, IBM System z9, and IBM System z10).

Weighted million operations per second (WMOPS) is a similar measurement, used for audio codecs.

Timeline of instructions per second

CPU results

Processor / System	data-sort-type="number"	Dhrystone MIPS or MIPS, and frequency	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle per core	data-sort-type="number"	Year	Source
UNIVAC I	0.002 MIPS at 2.25 MHz	0.0008	0.0008	1951	^[7]
IBM 7030 ("Stretch")	1.200 MIPS at 3.30 MHz	0.364	0.364	1961	^[8] ^[9]
CDC 6600	10.00 MIPS at 10.00 MHz	1	1	1965	^[10] ^[11]
Intel 4004	0.092 MIPS at 0.740 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.124	0.124	1971	^[12]
IBM System/370 Model 158	0.640 MIPS at 8.696 MHz	0.0736	0.0736	1972	^[13]
Intel 8080	0.290 MIPS at 2.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1974	^[14]
Cray 1	160.0 MIPS at 80.00 MHz	2	2	1975	^[15]
MOS Technology 6502	0.430 MIPS at 1.000 MHz	0.43	0.43	1975	^[16]
Intel 8080A	0.435 MIPS at 3.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1976
Zilog Z80	0.580 MIPS at 4.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1976
Motorola 6802	0.500 MIPS at 1.000 MHz	0.5	0.5	1977	^[17]
IBM System/370 Model 158-3	0.730 MIPS at 8.696 MHz	0.0839	0.0839	1977
VAX-11/780	1.000 MIPS at 5.000 MHz	0.2	0.2	1977
Motorola 6809	0.420 MIPS at 1.000 MHz	0.42	0.42	1978
Intel 8086	0.330 MIPS at 5.000 MHz	0.066	0.066	1978
Fujitsu MB8843	2.000 MIPS at 2.000 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	1	1	1978	^[18]
Intel 8088	0.750 MIPS at 10.00 MHz	0.075	0.075	1979
Motorola 68000	1.400 MIPS at 8.000 MHz	0.175	0.175	1979
Zilog Z8001/Z8002	1.5 MIPS at 6 MHz	0.25	0.25	1979	^[19]
Intel 8035/8039/8048	6 MIPS at 6 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	1	1	1980	^[20]
Fujitsu MB8843/MB8844	6 MIPS at 6 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	1	1	1980
Zilog Z80/Z80H	1.16 MIPS at 8 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.145	0.145	1981	^[21]
Motorola 6802	1.79 MIPS at 3.58 MHz	0.5	0.5	1981	^[22]
Zilog Z8001/Z8002B	2.5 MIPS at 10 MHz	0.25	0.25	1981
MOS Technology 6502	2.522 MIPS at 5.865 MHz	0.43	0.43	1981
Intel 80286	1.28 MIPS at 12 MHz	0.107	0.107	1982
Motorola 68010	2.407 MIPS at 12.5 MHz	0.193	0.193	1982	^[23]
NEC V20	4 MIPS at 8 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.5	0.5	1982	^[24]
Texas Instruments TMS32010	5 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.25	0.25	1983	^[25]
NEC V30	5 MIPS at 10 MHz (Not Dhrystone)	0.5	0.5	1983
Motorola 68020	4.848 MIPS at 16 MHz	0.303	0.303	1984	^[26]
Hitachi HD63705	2 MIPS at 2 MHz	1	1	1985	^[27] ^[28]
Intel i386DX	2.15 MIPS at 16 MHz	0.134	0.134	1985
Hitachi-Motorola 68HC000	3.5 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.175	0.175	1985
Intel 8751	1 MIPS at 12 MHz	0.083	0.083	1985	^[29]
WDC 65C816 / Ricoh 5A22	0.22 MIPS at 2.8 MHz	0.08	0.08	1985
ARM2	4 MIPS at 8 MHz	0.5	0.5	1986	^[30]
Stanford MIPS R2000 / R2000A	8 / 9.8 MIPS at 12.5 MHz	0.64 - 0.78	0.64 - 0.78	1986 / 1988	^[31] ^[32]
Sun SPARC / Fujitsu MB86900	10 MIPS at 16.6 MHz	0.6	0.6	1986	^[33]
Texas Instruments TMS34010	6 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.12	0.12	1986	^[34]
NEC V70	6.6 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.33	0.33	1987	^[35]
Motorola 68030	9 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.36	0.36	1987	^[36] ^[37]
Gmicro/200	10 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.5	0.5	1987	^[38]
Texas Instruments TMS320C20	12.5 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.5	0.5	1987	^[39]
Analog Devices ADSP-2100	12.5 MIPS at 12.5 MHz	1	1	1987	^[40]
Texas Instruments TMS320C25	25 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.5	0.5	1987
Intel i486DX	8.7 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.348	0.348	1989
NEC V80	16.5 MIPS at 33 MHz	0.5	0.5	1989
Intel i860	25 MIPS at 25 MHz	1	1	1989	^[41]
ARM3	12 MIPS at 25 MHz	0.5	0.5	1989	^[42]
Motorola 68040	44 MIPS at 40 MHz	1.1	1.1	1990	^[43]
AMD Am386	9 MIPS at 40 MHz	0.225	0.225	1991	^[44]
Intel i486DX	11.1 MIPS at 33 MHz	0.336	0.336	1991
Intel i860	50 MIPS at 50 MHz	1	1	1991
Intel i486DX2	25.6 MIPS at 66 MHz	0.388	0.388	1992
Alpha 21064 (EV4)	86 MIPS at 150 MHz	0.573	0.573	1992
Alpha 21064 (EV4S/EV45)	135 MIPS at 200 MHz	0.675	0.675	1993	^[45]
MIPS R4400	85 MIPS at 150 MHz	0.567	0.567	1993
Gmicro/500	132 MIPS at 66 MHz	2	2	1993	^[46]
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 601	157.7 MIPS at 80 MHz	1.971	1.971	1993	^[47]
ARM7	40 MIPS at 45 MHz	0.889	0.889	1994	^[48]
Intel DX4	70 MIPS at 100 MHz	0.7	0.7	1994
Motorola 68060	110 MIPS at 75 MHz	1.33	1.33	1994
Intel Pentium	188 MIPS at 100 MHz	1.88	1.88	1994	^[49]
Microchip PIC16F	5 MIPS at 20 MHz	0.25	0.25	1995	^[50]
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 603e	188 MIPS at 133 MHz	1.414	1.414	1995	^[51]
ARM 7500FE	35.9 MIPS at 40 MHz	0.9	0.9	1996
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 603ev	423 MIPS at 300 MHz	1.41	1.41	1996
Intel Pentium Pro	541 MIPS at 200 MHz	2.7	2.7	1996	^[52]
Hitachi SH-4	360 MIPS at 200 MHz	1.8	1.8	1997	^[53] ^[54]
IBM-Motorola PowerPC 750	525 MIPS at 233 MHz	2.3	2.3	1997
Zilog eZ80	80 MIPS at 50 MHz	1.6	1.6	1999	^[55]
Intel Pentium III	2,054 MIPS at 600 MHz	3.4	3.4	1999
Freescale MPC8272	760 MIPS at 400 MHz	1.9	1.9	2000	^[56]
AMD Athlon	3,561 MIPS at 1.2 GHz	3.0	3.0	2000
Silicon Recognition ZISC 78	8,600 MIPS at 33 MHz	260.6	260.6	2000	^[57]
ARM11	515 MIPS at 412 MHz	1.25	1.25	2002	^[58]
AMD Athlon XP 2500+	7,527 MIPS at 1.83 GHz	4.1	4.1	2003
Pentium 4 Extreme Edition	9,726 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	3.0	3.0	2003
Microchip PIC10F	1 MIPS at 4 MHz	0.25	0.25	2004	^[59] ^[60]
ARM Cortex-M3	125 MIPS at 100 MHz	1.25	1.25	2004	^[61]
Nios II	190 MIPS at 165 MHz	1.13	1.13	2004	^[62]
MIPS32 4KEc	356 MIPS at 233 MHz	1.5	1.5	2004	^[63]
VIA C7	1,799 MIPS at 1.3 GHz	1.4	1.4	2005	^[64]
ARM Cortex-A8	2,000 MIPS at 1.0 GHz	2.0	2.0	2005	^[65]
AMD Athlon FX-57	12,000 MIPS at 2.8 GHz	4.3	4.3	2005
AMD Athlon 64 3800+ X2 (2-core)	14,564 MIPS at 2.0 GHz	7.3	3.6	2005	^[66]
PowerPC G4 MPC7448	3,910 MIPS at 1.7 GHz	2.3	2.3	2005	^[67]
ARM Cortex-R4	450 MIPS at 270 MHz	1.66	1.66	2006	^[68]
MIPS32 24K	604 MIPS at 400 MHz	1.51	1.51	2006	^[69]
PS3 Cell BE (PPE only)	10,240 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	3.2	3.2	2006
IBM Xenon CPU (3-core)	19,200 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	6.0	2.0	2005
AMD Athlon FX-60 (2-core)	18,938 MIPS at 2.6 GHz	7.3	3.6	2006
Intel Core 2 Extreme X6800 (2-core)	27,079 MIPS at 2.93 GHz	9.2	4.6	2006
Intel Core 2 Extreme QX6700 (4-core)	49,161 MIPS at 2.66 GHz	18.4	4.6	2006	^[70]
MIPS64 20Kc	1,370 MIPS at 600 MHz	2.3	2.3	2007	^[71]
P.A. Semi PA6T-1682M	8,800 MIPS at 1.8 GHz	4.4	4.4	2007	^[72]
Qualcomm Scorpion (Cortex A8-like)	2,100 MIPS at 1 GHz	2.1	2.1	2008
Intel Atom N270	3,846 MIPS at 1.6 GHz	2.4	2.4	2008	^[73]
Intel Core 2 Extreme QX9770 (4-core)	59,455 MIPS at 3.2 GHz	18.6	4.6	2008
Intel Core i7 920 (4-core)	82,300 MIPS at 2.93 GHz	28.089	7.022	2008	^[74]
ARM Cortex-M0	45 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.9	0.9	2009	^[75]
ARM Cortex-A9 (2-core)	7,500 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	5.0	2.5	2009	^[76]
AMD Phenom II X4 940 Black Edition	42,820 MIPS at 3.0 GHz	14.3	3.5	2009	^[77]
ARM Cortex-A15 (Quad core)	35,000 MIPS at 2.5 GHz	14.0	3.5	2010	^[78]
AMD Phenom II X6 1100T	78,440 MIPS at 3.3 GHz	23.7	3.9	2010
Intel Core i7 Extreme Edition 980X (6-core)	147,600 MIPS at 3.33 GHz	44.7	7.46	2010	^[79]
ARM Cortex A5	1,256 MIPS at 800 MHz	1.57	1.57	2011
ARM Cortex A7	2,850 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	1.9	1.9	2011
Qualcomm Krait (Cortex A15-like, 2-core)	9,900 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	6.6	3.3	2011
AMD E-350 (2-core)	10,000 MIPS at 1.6 GHz	6.25	3.125	2011	^[80]
Nvidia Tegra 3 (Quad core Cortex-A9)	13,800 MIPS at 1.5 GHz	9.2	2.5	2011
Samsung Exynos 5250 (Cortex-A15-like 2-core)	14,000 MIPS at 2.0 GHz	7.0	3.5	2011	^[81]
Intel Core i5-2500K (4-core)	83,000 MIPS at 3.3 GHz	25.152	6.288	2011	^[82]
Intel Core i7 875K	92,100 MIPS at 2.93 GHz	31.4	7.85	2011
AMD FX-8150 (8-core)	90,749 MIPS at 3.6 GHz	25.2	3.15	2011	^[83]
Intel Core i7 2600K (4-core)	117,160 MIPS at 3.4 GHz	34.45	8.61	2011	^[84]
Intel Core i7-3960X (6-core)	176,170 MIPS at 3.3 GHz	53.38	8.89	2011	^[85]
AMD FX-8350 (8-core)	97,125 MIPS at 4.2 GHz	23.1	2.9	2012	^[86]
AMD FX-9590 (8-core)	115,625 MIPS at 5.0 GHz	23.1	2.9	2012
Intel Core i7 3770K (4-core)	106,924 MIPS at 3.9 GHz	27.4	6.9	2012
Intel Core i7 4770K (4-core)	133,740 MIPS at 3.9 GHz	34.29	8.57	2013	^[87]
Intel Core i7 5960X (8-core)	298,190 MIPS at 3.5 GHz	85.2	10.65	2014	^[88]
Intel Core i7 6950X (10-core)	320,440 MIPS at 3.5 GHz	91.55	9.16	2016	^[89]
ARM Cortex A73 (4-core)	71,120 MIPS at 2.8 GHz	25.4	6.35	2016
ARM Cortex A75			8.2-9.5	2017	^[90]
ARM Cortex A76			10.7-12.4	2018
ARM Cortex A53	2,300 MIPS at 1 GHz	2.3	2.3	2012	^[91]
ARM Cortex A35	2,100 MIPS at 1 GHz	2.1	2.1	2015
ARM Cortex A72	15,750 to 18,375 at 2.5 GHz	6.3 to 7.35	6.3 to 7.35	2015
ARM Cortex A57	10,250 to 11,750 at 2.5 GHz	4.1 to 4.7	4.1 to 4.7	2012
Sitara AM64x ARM Cortex A53 (2-core)	5,992 MIPS at 1 GHz	6	3	2021	^[92]
AMD Ryzen 7 1800X (8-core)	304,510 MIPS at 3.7 GHz	82.3	10.29	2017	^[93]
Intel Core i7-8086K (6-core)	221,720 MIPS at 5.0 GHz	44.34	7.39	2018	^[94]
Intel Core i9-9900K (8-core)	412,090 MIPS at 4.7 GHz	87.68	10.96	2018
AMD Ryzen 9 3950X (16-core)	749,070 MIPS at 4.6 GHz	162.84	10.18	2019	^[95]
AMD Ryzen Threadripper 3990X (64 core)	2,356,230 MIPS at 4.35 GHz	541.66	8.46	2020	^[96]
Intel Core i5-11600K (6-core)	346,350 MIPS at 4.92 GHz	57.72	11.73	2021	^[97]
Processor / System	data-sort-type="number"	Dhrystone MIPS / MIPS	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle per core	data-sort-type="number"	Year	Source

Multi-CPU cluster results

Processor / System	data-sort-type="number"	Dhrystone MIPS or MIPS, and frequency	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle per core	data-sort-type="number"	Year	Source
LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System (257-processor)	642.5 MIPS at 10 MHz	2.5	0.25	1982	^[98]
Sega System 16 (4-processor)	16.33 MIPS at 10 MHz	4.083	1.020	1985	^[99]
Namco System 21 (10-processor)	73.927 MIPS at 25 MHz	2.957	0.296	1988	^[100]
Atari Hard Drivin' (7-processor)	33.573 MIPS at 50 MHz	0.671	0.0959	1989	^[101]
NEC SX-3 (4-processor)	680 MIPS at 400 MHz	1.7	0.425	1989	^[102]
Namco System 21 (Galaxian³) (96-processor)	1,660.386 MIPS at 40 MHz	41.51	0.432	1990	^[103]
SGI Onyx RealityEngine^2 (36-processor)	2,640 MIPS at 150 MHz	17.6	0.489	1993	^[104]
Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator (36-processor)	2,880 MIPS at 150 MHz	19.2	0.533	1993	^[105]
Sega Naomi Multiboard (32-processor)	6,400 MIPS at 200 MHz	32	1	1999	^[106]
Raspberry Pi 2 (quad-core ARM Cortex A7)	4,744 MIPS at 1.0 GHz	4.744	1.186	2014	^[107]
Processor / System	data-sort-type="number"	Dhrystone MIPS / MIPS	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle	data-sort-type="number"	D instructions per clock cycle per core	data-sort-type="number"	Year	Source

See also

• TOP500
• FLOPS - floating-point operations per second
• SUPS
• Benchmark (computing)
• BogoMips (measurement of CPU speed made by the Linux kernel)
• Instructions per cycle
• Cycles per instruction
• Dhrystone (benchmark) - DMIPS integer benchmark
• Whetstone (benchmark) - floating-point benchmark
• Million service units (MSU)
• Computer performance by orders of magnitude
• Performance per watt
• Data-rate units

Notes and References

1. Web site: Technical Resources migrated from TechCenter - Dell US. Dell. US. en.community.dell.com. 17 October 2016. 28 May 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140528065702/http://en.community.dell.com/techcenter/high-performance-computing/w/wiki/2329.aspx. live.
2. Gibson . J.C. . 1970 . The Gibson Mix . Technical Report TR 00.2043 . IBM Systems Development Division . Poughkeepsie, N.Y..
3. Book: Elliot, Jimmie Lynn. Computer Performance and Evaluation Utilizating the Resource Planing and Management System, Masters Thesis. June 5, 1975. Oregon State University. March 21, 2021. Appendix E, The Gibson Mix by Jack C. Gibson. 88–92. 12 April 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011114/https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/t148fm257. live.
4. Web site: Don't be Misled by MIPS. Ted MacNeil. IBM magazine. 2009-11-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20120723080942/http://www.ibmsystemsmag.com/mainframe/tipstechniques/systemsmanagement/Don-t-Be-Misled-By-MIPS/. 2012-07-23. dead.
5. Book: System Performance Tuning. 32. 2002. 9780596002848. Musumeci. Gian-Paolo D.. Loukides. Mike. Loukides. Michael Kosta.
6. The Best of Both Worlds: Mac II vs. IBM PS/2 Model 80. 105. November 24, 1987. PC Magazine.
7. Book: US Steel News . 15-20 . 1950–1955 . Industrial Relations Department of The United States Steel Corporation of Delaware . 29 .
8. Book: Padua, David. Encyclopedia of Parallel Computing. 2011-09-08. Springer Science & Business Media. 9780387097657. en.
9. Web site: Stretch Report. Meagher. R.E.. May 9, 1961. Computer History. 25 May 2017. 11 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160411220022/http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/IBM/Stretch/pdfs/05-16/102632634.pdf. live.
10. Web site: Control Data Corporation, CDC-6600 & 7600. ed-thelen.org. 2017-05-25. 3 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170403020652/http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/vs-cdc-6600.html. live.
11. News: Control Data 6600: The Supercomputer Arrives. Dr. Dobb's. 2017-05-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20170605132007/http://www.drdobbs.com/control-data-6600-the-supercomputer-arri/184404102. 2017-06-05. dead.
12. Web site: MCS4 > IntelP4004. www.cpushack.com. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094112/https://www.cpushack.com/chippics/Intel/MCS4/IntelP4004.html. live.
13. Web site: Cost of CPU Performance Through Time 1944-2003. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20141009144357/http://www.jcmit.com/cpu-performance.htm. 2014-10-09.
14. Web site: Intel Processors. https://web.archive.org/web/20120424231244/http://www.depi.itch.edu.mx/apacheco/asm/Intel_cpus.htm . 2012-04-24. 24 April 2012.
15. Web site: History of Computers and Computing, Birth of the modern computer, Electronic computer, Cray computers of Seymour Cray. history-computer.com. 2017-05-25. 8 November 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161108001252/http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Electronic/Cray.html. dead.
16. Web site: Lud's Open Source Corner. Ludovic. Drolez. 16 September 2014. 9 March 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200309132442/https://drolez.com/retro/. live.
17. 2 cycles per instruction http://www.andysarcade.de/data/electronics/components/6802_6808.pdf
18. 1 instruction per cycle https://web.archive.org/web/20141006111132/http://www.datasheetarchive.com/dlmain/Datasheets-112/DSAP0049295.pdf
19. 4 cycles per instruction http://maben.homeip.net/static/s100/zilog/z8000/Zilog%20Z8000%20reference%20manual.pdf#page=67 = 0.25 instructions per cycle
20. Web site: intel :: dataSheets :: 8048 8035 HMOS Single Component 8-Bit Microcomputer DataSheet 1980. 1980.
21. Web site: https://web.archive.org/web/20120219195401/http://www.cityofberwyn.com/simulation/gameHardware/G80ref1.20.txt . Sega G80 Hardware Reference. 2012-02-19. 25 October 1997.
22. Web site: System 16 – Irem M27 Hardware (Irem). www.system16.com. 29 June 2023. 5 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230605123407/https://system16.com/hardware.php?id=735. live.
23. 10% faster http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/68010/ than 68000 (0.175 MIPS per MHz http://www.drolez.com/retro/)
24. http://www.ceibo.com/eng/datasheets/NEC-V20-V30-Users-Manual.pdf NEC V20/V30
25. Web site: TMS320C1x Digital Signal Processors. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20141006111247/http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/tms320ss16.pdf. 2014-10-06.
26. Web site: 32-Bit Microprocessor-NXP. 18 April 2013. 1 November 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121101104152/http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/prod_summary.jsp?code=MC68020. live.
27. Web site: ZTAT (ZeroTurnAroundTime) Microcomputers. https://web.archive.org/web/20141006164550/http://digital.hitachihyoron.com/pdf/1985/08/1985_08_05.pdf . October 6, 2014.
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29. 1 instruction per cycle http://pdf.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheet/Intel/mXuwzsy.pdf
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32. Web site: DECstation 2100 . 2024-08-20 . web.archive.org.
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39. Web site: 060 1987 Drivers Eyes + 1989 Winning Run. The history of racing games. June 2007. 16 September 2014. 1 October 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141001164723/http://historyofracinggames.files.wordpress.com/2007/06/060-1987-drivers-eyes-1989-winning-run.pdf. live.
40. Web site: Analog Devices ADSP-2100KG datasheet pdf. www.datasheetcatalog.com. 29 June 2023.
41. Web site: Intel i860-based Bus Boards. dead. https://archive.today/20130625223553/http://alacron.com/index.php?src=gendocs&ref=Inteli860_basedBusBoardsFT_200_VME&category=news. 2013-06-25.
42. Web site: ARM3 – Microarchitectures – Acorn . Wikichip.org . 17 October 2018 . 12 April 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220412010955/https://en.wikichip.org/wiki/acorn/microarchitectures/arm3 . live .
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47. Web site: dhrystone. www.netlib.org. 29 June 2023. 23 July 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230723012801/https://www.netlib.org/performance/html/dhrystone.data.col0.html. live.
48. Web site: DCTP – Saturn Specifications. https://web.archive.org/web/20030301001846/http://www.segatech.com/technical/saturnspecs/ . dead . 2003-03-01 .
49. Web site: Charts, benchmarks CPU Charts 2004, Sandra – CPU Dhrystone. https://archive.today/20130205075133/http://www.tomshardware.com/charts/cpu-charts-2004/Sandra-CPU-Dhrystone,449.html. dead. 2013-02-05.
50. Web site: PIC16F84A – 8-bit PIC Microcontrollers. 29 June 2023. 8 September 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150908100537/http://www.microchip.com/wwwproducts/Devices.aspx?dDocName=en010230. live.
51. Web site: Motorola Power PC 603 E Microprocessor. 2014-09-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20140918010118/http://www.fermimn.gov.it/inform/materiali/evarchi/motorola/603e_fs.pdf. 2014-09-18. dead.
52. Web site: SiSoftware – Windows, Android, GPGPU, CUDA, OpenCL, analysers, diagnostic and benchmarking apps. 23 April 2023. 29 June 2023. 3 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230903123026/https://www.sisoftware.co.uk/. live.
53. Web site: DCTP – Hitachi's 200 MHz SH-4. 2014-09-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20141211115813/http://www.segatech.com/technical/cpu/. 2014-12-11. dead.
54. Web site: DCTP – January 1998 News Archives . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160305063757/http://www.segatech.com/archives/january1998.html . 2016-03-05 .
55. News: Zilog Sees New Lease of Life for Z80 in Internet Appliances . https://archive.today/20120525013958/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CGN/is_3751/ai_55817127 . dead . 2012-05-25 . . 1999 .
56. Web site: Freescale Semiconductor – MPC8272 PowerQUICC II Processor Family. 2008-05-13. 2012-02-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20120218191405/http://www.freescale.com/files/netcomm/doc/fact_sheet/MPC8272FAMFS.pdf. dead.
57. Web site: ZISC78 datasheet & application notes – Datasheet Archive. www.datasheetarchive.com. 29 June 2023.
58. Web site: ARM's Cortex A7: Bringing Cheaper Dual-Core & More Power Efficient High-End Devices. Anand Lal. Shimpi. 19 October 2011. 5 November 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121105142208/http://www.anandtech.com/show/4991/arms-cortex-a7-bringing-cheaper-dualcore-more-power-efficient-highend-devices. live.
59. Web site: PIC10F200 – 8-bit PIC Microcontrollers. 29 June 2023. 10 December 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151210234721/http://www.microchip.com/wwwproducts/Devices.aspx?dDocName=en019863. live.
60. Web site: Microchip Redirect. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20141006121958/http://www.microchip.com/stellent/idcplg?IdcService=SS_GET_PAGE&nodeId=2018&mcparam=en020144. 2014-10-06.
61. Web site: Cortex-M3. developer.arm.com. 29 June 2023. 9 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230609082709/https://developer.arm.com/Processors/Cortex-M3. live.
62. Web site: FPGA Documentation Index. Intel. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094111/https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/support/programmable/support-resources/fpga-documentation-index.html. live.
63. Web site: MIPS Architecture Enabling Growing List of Mobile Application Processors. Design And Reuse. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094111/https://www.design-reuse.com/news/8544/mips-architecture-enabling-list-mobile-processors.html. live.
64. Web site: mini-itx.com – epia px 10000 review. www.mini-itx.com. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094110/https://www.mini-itx.com/reviews/pico-itx/?page=6. live.
65. Web site: Microprocessor Cores and Processor Technology – Arm®. Arm. Ltd. Arm | The Architecture for the Digital World. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094113/https://www.arm.com/products/silicon-ip-cpu. live.
66. Web site: Charts, benchmarks CPU Charts 2007, Synthetic SiSoft Sandra XI CPU. https://archive.today/20130204130212/http://www.tomshardware.com/charts/cpu-charts-2007/Synthetic-SiSoft-Sandra-XI-CPU,333.html. dead. 2013-02-04.
67. Web site: RISC Microprocessor. www.nxp.com. 29 June 2023. 10 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230610011705/https://www.nxp.com/products/processors-and-microcontrollers/power-architecture/integrated-host-processors/risc-microprocessor:MPC7448. live.
68. Web site: Cortex-R4. developer.arm.com. 29 June 2023.
69. Web site: 24K. 29 June 2023. 14 May 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110514104549/http://www.mips.com/products/cores/32-64-bit-cores/mips32-24k/. dead.
70. Web site: All content Archive | June 2023. Tom's Hardware. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094111/https://www.tomshardware.com/archive. live.
71. Web site: Semiconductor IP Cores Companies. www.design-reuse.com. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094112/https://www.design-reuse.com/sip/provider.php. live.
72. Web site: Startup takes PowerPC to 25 W . https://archive.today/20130121231507/http://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4069313/Startup-takes-PowerPC-to-25-W . dead . 21 January 2013 . Merritt, Rick . . . 5 February 2007 . 20 November 2012 .
73. Web site: Benchmarks of ECS 945GCT-D with Intel Atom 1.6GHz. www.ocworkbench.com. 29 June 2023. 5 October 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221005085304/http://www.ocworkbench.com/2008/ecs/ECS_945GCT-D_Atom_board/b1.htm. live.
74. Web site: Charts, benchmarks Desktop CPU Charts 2010, ALU Performance: SiSoftware Sandra 2010 Pro (ALU). https://archive.today/20130204153332/http://www.tomshardware.com/charts/desktop-cpu-charts-2010/ALU-Performance-SiSoftware-Sandra-2010-Pro-ALU,2408.html. dead. 2013-02-04.
75. Web site: Cortex-M0. developer.arm.com. 29 June 2023. 11 July 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230711074754/https://developer.arm.com/Processors/Cortex-M0. live.
76. Web site: EEE Journal: ARM11 vs Cortex A8 vs Cortex A9 – Netbooks processors EEE PC, MSI Wind, HP, Acer Aspire, ARM Cortex vs Intel Atom. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20110719103301/http://www.eeejournal.com/2009/12/arm11-vs-cortex-a8-vs-cortex-a9.html. 2011-07-19.
77. Web site: The Phenom II List of Overclocks – Page 21. 2009-01-15. 2009-04-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20090404020052/http://www.xtremesystems.org/forums/showpost.php?p=3579940&postcount=513. dead.
78. Web site: Cortex-A15 Processor – ARM.
79. Web site: OC3D :: Review :: Intel 980x Gulftown :: Synthetic Benchmarks. 12 March 2010. 16 March 2010. 20 July 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110720062355/http://www.overclock3d.net/reviews/cpu_mainboard/intel_980x_gulftown/4. dead.
80. Web site: Benchmark Results: Sandra 2011 – ASRock's E350M1: AMD's Brazos Platform Hits The Desktop First. 14 January 2011. 11 October 2011. 6 September 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110906034927/http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/asrock-e350m1-amd-brazos-zacate-apu,2840-10.html. live.
81. Web site: Samsung Semiconductor Global Official Website. 3 February 2013. 11 October 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131011154845/http://www.samsung.com/global/business/semiconductor/minisite/Exynos/news_11.html. live.
82. Web site: Core i5 2500K and Core i7 2600K review. Guru3D.com. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094114/https://www.guru3d.com/articles_pages/core_i5_2500k_and_core_i7_2600k_review,1.html. dead.
83. Web site: Test: Sandra Dhrystone (MIPS) for i7-4770K, i7-3770K, FX-8350, FX-8150. www.cpu-world.com. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094111/https://www.cpu-world.com/benchmarks/browse/910_80,965_61,993_80,1035_96/?c_test=6&PROCESS=Show+Selected. live.
84. Web site: Benchmark Results: SiSoftware Sandra 2011 – The Intel Core i7-990X Extreme Edition Processor Review. 25 February 2011. 3 March 2011. 28 February 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110228174952/http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/core-i7-990x-extreme-edition-gulftown,2874-6.html. live.
85. Web site: HardOCP – Synthetic Benchmarks. 2011-11-14. 2011-11-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20111116213433/http://www.hardocp.com/article/2011/11/14/intel_core_i73960x_sandy_bridge_e_processor_review/4. dead.
86. Web site: AMD FX-8350 Black Edition vs Intel Core i7-4770K: What is the difference?. Versus. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094111/https://versus.com/en/amd-fx-8350-black-edition-vs-intel-core-i7-4770k. live.
87. Web site: Intel Core i7-4770K Desktop Processor. Notebookcheck. 29 June 2023. 29 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230629094112/https://www.notebookcheck.net/Intel-Core-i7-4770K-Desktop-Processor.93553.0.html. live.
88. Web site: Core i7-5960X Extreme Edition Review: Intel's Overdue Desktop 8-Core Is Here. August 29, 2014. Rob Williams. Techgage. 6 December 2014. 22 December 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141222225531/http://techgage.com/print/core-i7-5960x-extreme-edition-review-intels-overdue-desktop-8-core-is-here/. live.
89. Web site: Intel Core I7 6950X Extreme Edition Broadwell-E CPU Review. May 30, 2016. ccokeman. 22 March 2020. 22 March 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200322031017/https://www.overclockersclub.com/reviews/intel_core_i7_extreme_edition_broadwell_e_cpu/5.htm. live.
90. Web site: ARM's processor lines. November 2018. uni-obuda.hu. Dezső Sima. 29 June 2023. 10 May 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230510175913/https://users.nik.uni-obuda.hu/sima/letoltes/Processor_families_Knowledge_Base_2019/ARM_processors_lecture_2018_12_02.pdf. live.
91. Web site: Overview of ARM's Cortex-A series. elearning.unicampania.it. 29 June 2023. 24 December 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221224024851/https://elearning.unicampania.it/pluginfile.php/65623/mod_folder/content/0/ARM_organization_part2.pdf. live.
92. Web site: Application note. Sitara™AM64x /AM243x Benchmarks. ti.com. 29 June 2023. 28 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230128202214/https://www.ti.com/lit/an/spracv1a/spracv1a.pdf. live.
93. Web site: AMD Ryzen 7 1800X, 1700X, And 1700 Review And Benchmarks: Zen Brings The Fight Back To Intel. Marco. Chiappetta. HotHardware. 2017-03-02. 2017-03-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20170305194708/http://hothardware.com/gallery/Article/2588?image=big_ryzen-1800x-san-cpu.jpg&tag=popup. 2017-03-05. dead.
94. Web site: Details for Component Intel Core i7-8086K . SiSoftware Official Live Ranker.
95. Web site: Marco Chiappetta. AMD Ryzen 9 3950X Review: A 16-Core Zen 2 Powerhouse. HotHardware. 14 November 2019. 22 March 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200306103204/https://hothardware.com/reviews/amd-ryzen-9-3950x-zen-2-review?page=2. 6 March 2020. dead.
96. Web site: Marco Chiappetta. AMD Threadripper 3990X Review: A 64-Core Multithreaded Beast Unleashed. HotHardware. 7 February 2020. 22 March 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200318200417/https://hothardware.com/reviews/amd-ryzen-threadripper-3990x-cpu-review?page=3. 18 March 2020. dead.
97. Web site: Intel Core i9-11900K And i5-11600K Review: Rocket Lake-S Liftoff. Marco. Chiappetta. HotHardware. 2021-03-30. 13 June 2023. 13 June 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230613001224/https://hothardware.com/reviews/intel-core-i9-11900k-core-i5-11600k-rocket-lake-s-review?page=2. live.
98. LINKS-1 Computer Graphics System: 257× Zilog Z8001 http://museum.ipsj.or.jp/en/computer/other/0013.html at 10 MHz http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Z800x/ (2.5 MIPS http://maben.homeip.net/static/s100/zilog/z8000/Zilog%20Z8000%20reference%20manual.pdf#page=67) each
99. Sega System 16: Hitachi-Motorola 68000 @ 10 MHz (1.75 MIPS), NEC-Zilog Z80 @ 4 MHz (0.58 MIPS) http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=695 http://www.drolez.com/retro/, Intel 8751 @ 8 MHz http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=695 (8 MIPS http://pdf.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheet/Intel/mXuwzsy.pdf), Intel 8048 @ 6 MHz Web site: Sega Pre-System 16 hardware notes . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160125154636/http://cgfm2.emuviews.com/txt/p16tech.txt . 2016-01-25 . 2016-08-08. (6 MIPS https://archive.org/stream/bitsavers_inteldataSngleComponent8BitMicrocomputerDataSheet1_846962/8048_8035_HMOS_Single_Component_8-Bit_Microcomputer_DataSheet_1980)
100. Namco System 21 hardware: 5× Texas Instruments TMS320C20 @ 25 MHz (62.5 MIPS http://historyofracinggames.files.wordpress.com/2007/06/060-1987-drivers-eyes-1989-winning-run.pdf), 2× Motorola 68000 @ 12.288 MHz http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=536 (4.301 MIPS http://www.drolez.com/retro/), Motorola 68020 http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=536 @ 12.5 MHz (3.788 MIPS http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/prod_summary.jsp?code=MC68020), Hitachi HD63705 @ 2.048 MHz https://archive.today/20141121115057/https://github.com/mamedev/mame/tree/master/src/mame/drivers/namcos21.c (2.048 MIPS https://web.archive.org/web/20140918053051/http://www.datasheetarchive.com/dlmain/Datasheets-13/DSA-246134.pdf), Motorola 6809 @ 3.072 MHz https://archive.today/20141121115057/https://github.com/mamedev/mame/tree/master/src/mame/drivers/namcos21.c (1.29 MIPS http://www.drolez.com/retro/)
101. Atari Hard Drivin' hardware: http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=770 Motorola 68000 @ 7 MHz (1.225 MIPS http://www.drolez.com/retro/), Motorola 68010 @ 7 MHz (1.348 MIPS http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/68010/), 3× Texas Instruments TMS34010 @ 50 MHz (18 MIPS https://books.google.com/books?id=KzoEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT22), Analog Devices ADSP-2100 @ 8 MHz (8 MIPS http://pdf.datasheetcatalog.com/datasheet/analogdevices/ADSP-2100KG.pdf), Texas Instruments TMS32010 @ 20 MHz (5 MIPS Web site: TMS320C1x Digital Signal Processors . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20141006111247/http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/tms320ss16.pdf . 2014-10-06 . 2014-09-17.)
102. Supercomputer. Pik – Praxis der Informationsverarbeitung und Kommunikation. 13. 4. 10.1515/piko.1990.13.4.205. 1990. 2014-09-29. 2014-11-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20141109011953/http://www.degruyter.com/dg/viewarticle/j$002fpiko.1990.13.issue-4$002fpiko.1990.13.4.205$002fpiko.1990.13.4.205.xml;jsessionid=2928071D864D5E4F9045C8A209E7AA94. dead.
103. Namco System 21 (Galaxian³) hardware: https://archive.today/20141121115053/https://github.com/mamedev/mame/tree/master/src/mame/drivers/gal3.c 80× Texas Instruments TMS320C25 @ 40 MHz (1600 MIPS http://historyofracinggames.files.wordpress.com/2007/06/060-1987-drivers-eyes-1989-winning-run.pdf), 5× Motorola 68020 @ 24.576 MHz (37.236 MIPS http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/prod_summary.jsp?code=MC68020) Motorola 68000 @ 12.288 MHz (2.15 MIPS http://www.drolez.com/retro/), 10× Motorola 68000 @ 12 MHz (21 MIPS http://www.drolez.com/retro/)
104. 24× MIPS R4400 (2040 MIPS), http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=832 12× Intel i860 (600 MIPS) Web site: Intel i860-based Bus Boards . dead . https://archive.today/20130625223553/http://alacron.com/index.php?src=gendocs&ref=Inteli860_basedBusBoardsFT_200_VME&category=news . 2013-06-25 . 2014-09-17.
105. Web site: System 16 - Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator Hardware (Namco). www.system16.com. 29 June 2023. 12 September 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140912000953/http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=832. live.
106. Sega Naomi Multiboard hardware: http://www.system16.com/hardware.php?id=906 http://segatech.com/arcade/naomi1/index.html 16× Hitachi SH-4 at 200 MHz (5760 MIPS http://www.segatech.com/technical/cpu/), 16× ARM7 at 45 MHz (640 MIPS https://web.archive.org/web/20030301001846/http://www.segatech.com/technical/saturnspecs/)
107. Web site: Benchmarking The Raspberry Pi 2. By. hackaday.com. 2015-02-05. 1 May 2015. 11 May 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150511003205/http://hackaday.com/2015/02/05/benchmarking-the-raspberry-pi-2/. live.