The Insurrection of Pernambuco (Portuguese: Insurreição Pernambucana), also known as the War of the Divine Light (Guerra da Luz Divina), was a movement against Dutch rule in the Captaincy of Pernambuco. The revolution occurred in the course of the second Dutch invasion during the Dutch–Portuguese War and resulted in the expulsion of the Dutch from the northeast region of Brazil, followed by the reclamation of the territory by the Kingdom of Portugal.[1]
On May 15, 1645, eighteen Luso-Brazilian rebel leaders gathered at the São João Sugar Mill and signed a pledge to fight against Dutch rule in the captaincy. The movement involved groups led by André Vidal de Negreiros, João Fernandes Vieira, Henrique Dias and Filipe Camarão, in the famous Battles of Guararapes, fought between 1648 and 1649 and crucial to the expulsion of the Dutch from Brazil in 1654.
Until the arrival of Maurice of Nassau, administrator of the West India Company (WIC), in the conquered territories in 1637, the Portuguese waged the so-called "Guerra Brasílica", a type of guerrilla warfare that consisted of quick, stealthy attacks on Dutch forces and rapid retreat into the woods. When Nassau implemented a policy of stabilization in the captured territories, these ambushes were suspended in the captaincy of Pernambuco.[2]
Under his government, northeastern Brazil experienced a golden age knows as the "New Netherlands". Upon landing in Pernambuco, he found around 7,000 people living in the worst hygiene and housing conditions. Then, he ordered the construction of bridges and palaces, began the urbanization of the area that is now known as the Santo Antônio district in Recife and encouraged the arts and sciences. His new reality was portrayed mainly by Frans Post and Albert Eckhout.
Regarding the exploitation of the colony, Nassau was tolerant of the plantation owners, who owed a lot to the WIC. He was equally liberal towards Judaism and Catholicism, allowing all religions to be professed freely. He also opted not to confiscate mills or suppress revolts with cruelty, contrary to the measures desired by the WIC lords.
At the beginning of 1640, a Portuguese-Spanish fleet failed to land in Pernambuco and was destroyed near Ilha de Itamaracá, sparking the war for Brazil. In the meantime, the Dutch conquer São Tomé and Príncipe and Luanda, in Angola, slave supply centers.[3]
Portugal had already been in conflict with the Netherlands since 1595, when the Portuguese freed themselves from Spanish rule in December and started the Restoration War. The new king of Portugal, John IV, faced with a long war against Spain, signed a ten-year truce between Portugal and the Netherlands and ordered the Brazilian settlers not to attack the Dutch.[4]
In the northeast of Brazil, the sugar cane mills, which were struggling in a year of plagues and drought, began to face pressure from the West India Company, responsible for collecting debts and confiscating the mills of defaulting farmers. This situation led to the outbreak of the Insurrection of Pernambuco, culminating in the extinction of Dutch rule in Brazil.
On June 13, 1645, the rebellion began under the command of André Vidal de Negreiros and João Fernandes Vieira. Initially, the Dutch government didn't pay much attention to the movement. When Henrique Dias and Filipe Camarão entered Alagoas, Nassau began sending military commanders to put an end to the outbreaks of revolt.
On August 3, 1645, the two armies clashed in the Battle of Mount Tabocas. Dutch commander Hendrick Haus was convinced that he would fight amateur soldiers, men with no military experience, and carried a large number of chains to take the rebels prisoner. However, Haus was lured into an ambush which resulted in the defeat of the Dutch troops.[5]
The victory at Mount Tabocas boosted the rebels' confidence. The leaders of the movement decided to march south of Recife to meet the troops of Henrique Dias and Filipe Camarão, who were coming from Bahia. When the Dutch authorities became aware of the situation, they sent emissaries to the governor general of Brazil, Antonio Teles da Silva, who, however, said that Dias and Camarão were acting on their own and that there was nothing he could do, but promised to try to pacify them. However, despite this commitment, Antonio Teles began to actively help the movement.[6]
After occupying the Fort of Santo Antônio do Cabo, André Vidal's troops joined those of Vieira, Dias and Camarão and landed close to Recife after retaking Olinda. Vidal, however, didn't attack Recife because he believed he wasn't ready for it yet.[7]
On October 7, the rebels of Pernambuco sent a manifesto to King John IV about their right to rise up against Dutch domination. Under pressure from the Dutch government, John IV sent orders to Bahia for his men to leave the Dutch colony. At the same time, he informed the Dutch that if he was not respected, he could do nothing. Meanwhile, in Brazil, the rebellious Portuguese suffered a defeat at sea when Serrão de Paiva's fleet was beaten by Jan Cornelisz Lichthart's troops. At the beginning of 1647, the Dutch invaded the island of Itaparica in Bahia, but the Portuguese regained it at the beginning of the following year. New reinforcements arrived from both the Netherlands and Portugal, with the Dutch commanded by Witte Corneliszoon de With and the Portuguese by the Count of Vila Pouca de Aguiar, the new governor-general of Brazil.
Still in 1647, Father Antônio Vieira, an advisor to John IV, suggested that the king buy Pernambuco from the Dutch, but the proposal was rejected by the Netherlands the following year.[8]
On April 18, 1648, the Guararapes Hill was occupied by 2,400 Portuguese soldiers from the Northeast. The following day, 4,500 Dutch arrived to confront them. Despite being outnumbered, the Portuguese leader Muniz Barreto decided to face the enemy in the First Battle of Guararapes. After five hours of fighting, the Portuguese-Northeasterners emerged victorious, but one of the Brazilian leaders, Filipe Camarão, died of wounds sustained during the battle.[9]
The Second Battle of Guararapes was fought on February 19, 1649, and, as in the first battle, the Dutch were outnumbered and underestimated the skill of the Portuguese and Northeastern allied commanders. The Brazilians moved their troops during the night and, when dawn broke, the Dutch found themselves almost surrounded. When they tried to retreat, they were attacked by the Allies, suffering another defeat in which 1028 men were killed, including the commander Colonel Brinck, and 90 men were taken prisoner. On the side of the Portuguese-Northeasterners, the casualties were 45 dead and 200 wounded.
In March 1649, the General Trading Company of Brazil was created in Portugal with the aim of confronting its Dutch rival and helping to retake Pernambuco.[10]
Over the next few years, the Dutch were more intimidated by the advance of the Allies, until, in 1652, the Netherlands went to war with England, which made it impossible for them to send reinforcements to their colony. Taking advantage of this, John IV sent a squadron made up of 13 warships and 64 armed merchant ships under the command of Pedro Jaques de Magalhães, which arrived in Pernambuco on December 20, 1653, and laid siege to Recife. On January 15, 1654, the Portuguese-Northeasterners, commanded by André Vital, attacked Recife. On the 23rd, the Dutch made a peace proposal which was accepted by the Allies. On January 26, 1654, the Dutch leaders signed the surrender.
At the surrender, agreement was reached that all the towns, forts and armaments held by the Dutch would pass to the Portuguese crown; that all those who had helped the Dutch would receive amnesty; that the Dutch who wanted to remain in Brazil would have the same rights as the Portuguese; and that those who wanted to leave would be allowed to take all their possessions. The news of the surrender reached Portugal on March 19, the birthday of King John IV. Negotiations between Portugal and the Netherlands began soon afterwards.[11]
Once the Anglo-Dutch War was over, the Dutch turned against Portugal. A Dutch fleet blockaded Portugal's main ports while Dutch diplomats negotiated the conditions for peace between Portugal and the Netherlands with Queen Regent Luísa, widow of King John IV. The demands were high: Portugal was to return Pernambuco and the other territories of "New Netherlands" to the Dutch, hand over the Portuguese colonies of Angola and São Tomé and pay a hefty indemnity to the Dutch West India Company.[12] The situation was difficult for Portugal, as they were at war with Spain. However, Portugal did not concede to these demands and the war continued until the marriage of the King of England, Charles II, to Catherine, daughter of King John IV and sister of King Afonso VI, which led England to intervene on Portugal's favor.[13] The signing of a definitive peace, under more dignified conditions for Portugal, finally took place on August 6, 1661, with the Treaty of The Hague, in which "New Netherlands" was "sold" to Portugal for four million cruzados (or eight million guilders), to be paid in cash or sugar, tobacco and salt. Also under the terms of the agreement, the Dutch would enjoy customs benefits and commercial freedoms in the territories of the Portuguese empire. In 1662, due to the delay in paying the indemnity, Kochi was taken by the Dutch, breaking the agreement signed. The Dutch, fearful of losing the territories they had already conquered, ended up signing the peace definitively in 1663.
At the end of the war, Portugal ended up ceding Sri Lanka (also invaded by the East India Company), as well as granting the Netherlands privileges in the sugar trade. In return, they recognized full Portuguese sovereignty over Brazil and Angola.[14]