The Walloon language has been written using various orthographies over its history, most notably the Feller system (Walloon: sistinme Feller) and Common Walloon (Walloon: rifondou walon or Walloon: rfondou walon).
The Feller system was developed to transcribe Walloon dialects by Jules Feller and was first published in 1900.[1] In the Feller system, the same word can be spelled differently depending on dialect: the word "fish" would be spelled Walloon: pèchon by a speaker who pronounces the word as pronounced as /[pɛʃɔ̃]/ (with an 'sh' sound), but would be spelled Walloon: pèhon by a speaker who pronounces the word as pronounced as /[pɛhɔ̃]/ (with an 'h' sound). In Common Walloon, however, the same word "fish" is always spelled Walloon: pexhon, regardless of the speaker's pronunciation. The Common Walloon alphabet, developed through the 1990s, attempts to unify spellings across dialects, and revives some older graphemes (such as ⟨xh⟩) which were abandoned by Feller in favor of spellings which resembled standard French.[2] [3]
| + Walloon Alphabet [4] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Letter | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | I | width=100 | J | width=100 | K | width=100 | L | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | width=100 | V | width=100 | W | width=100 | X | width=100 | Y | width=100 | Z | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Name | a | bé | cé | dé | e | effe | gé | ache | i | ji | ka | elle | emme | enne | o | pé | qu | erre | esse | té | u | vé | wé | icse | î gréc / yod | zéde |
Early texts written in the region of Wallonia were composed in Medieval Latin, such as the 7th century Vita Sanctae Geretrudis. In the 9th century, the first texts written in the vernacular langue d'oïl appear in northern Gaul. One of the earliest of these documents, the Sequence of Saint Eulalia from around 880, shows regional traits of Walloon, Champenois, and Picard.[5] The medieval written language, often referred to as the scripta, used spellings that represented the spoken language only approximately, and was full of latinisms and archaic forms. The scripta was not specifically Walloon, but rather, according to linguist Maurice Delbouille, this common written language "in its role as an inter-regional idiom opposed on one hand the Latin of the clergy and on the other hand the everyday local dialect in the various regions."
From the 13th century onward, the scripta used in Wallonia was increasingly influenced by the "central" dialect of Île-de-France. In an analysis of a document from 1236 Liège, the linguist Louis Remacle found that only about 15% of the vocabulary used was distinctively Walloon, with the rest either distinctly French or having a phonetic form common to all the langues d'oïl.[6] From this time forward, writing in Wallonia underwent "cycles of purification", moving progressively closer and closer to the standard of the French language.
Even as the literature of Wallonia became almost entirely French through the 14th and 15th centuries, some Walloon words could still be found in local writing. A medical text from the early 15th century displays the situation by using the Walloon Walloon: weris "healed" alongside the Middle French French, Middle (ca.1400-1600);: [[wikt:garir|garira]] "will heal".[7] Walloon toponyms and proper nouns, as well as some words for common objects could be found written in dialect, often spelled in distinctive ways, using graphemes like ⟨xh⟩ and ⟨ea⟩.[8]
Beginning around 1600 some of the first "truly" Walloon documents appear, mostly in the Liège dialect. These include letters, poems, and works commenting on religious and political affairs.[9] Spelling during this early period was inconsistent, as evidenced by different published names of the 1757 opéra comique Walloon: Li Voyèdje di Tchaufontainne:
Despite the variety of spellings, some conventions were followed by many of these early texts. For example, ⟨j⟩ or ⟨g⟩ (before e and i) were often used for the sound pronounced as /[dʒ]/, and similarly ⟨ch⟩ represented pronounced as /[tʃ]/, while later orthographies would use ⟨dj⟩ and ⟨tch⟩ respectively. Many Walloon texts of this era also continued the usage of traditional digraphs such as ⟨xh⟩.[10]
The 19th century saw a flourishing of Walloon literature. In 1856 the French: Société liégeois de Littérature wallonne (Liège Society of Walloon Literature) was founded, later renamed the (Society of Walloon Language and Literature, SLLW). The Society promoted artistic works in the Walloon language as well as works of philology and dialectology. From the beginning, the SLLW was interested in solving the issue that there was no unified system of spelling for the Walloon language. Several orthographies were proposed, such as the more phonemic orthography of Charles-Nicolas Simonon (using such novel letters as ⟨ɹ⟩ and ⟨ñ⟩) and the orthography of Nicolas Pietkin, which made extensive analogy with French orthography. The most influential proposal, however, was that of dialectologist Jules Feller, the creator of the Feller system.
At the turn of the 20th century Jules Feller proposed a new orthography for the Walloon language. His paper, entitled French: Essai d'orthographe wallonne (Essay on Walloon Orthography), was submitted to the Liège Society of Walloon Literature in 1899 and published one year later in 1900 by the Society. His proposal balanced the principles of French: «phonétisme» and French: «analogie» - trying to faithfully represent the sound of the language while also referencing the dominant model of French orthography which most literate Walloons were familiar with.
The Society adopted Feller's orthography and, in 1903, tasked three of its members with writing a comprehensive Walloon dictionary. Jules Feller, Jean Haust, and collected 300,000 records over the next 25 years but the envisioned French: Dictionnaire général de la Langue wallonne was never completed.[11] Despite these difficulties, what became known as the French: Système Feller was adopted throughout the region, and the majority of Walloon publications for the next century were written in some variation of Feller's orthography.
Over the course of the 20th century, Walloon society transitioned rapidly from being primarily monolingual in the local dialects (such as Walloon, Lorrain, or Picard) to being primarily monolingual in French. In response to this new social reality, a group of Walloon activists began imagining a new common orthography in the late 1980s and early 1990s: a written "koiné" for the Walloon language.[12] Inspired by the examples of other regional languages like Romansh, Breton, and Occitan, the Walloon: rfondeus (initial creators of the orthography) sought to unify the spelling of words across the region. During the 1990s, they formulated a new proposal, the Walloon: rifondou walon, referred to in English as the "normalised spelling", "Common Written Walloon", or "Common Walloon".[13] [14]
Common Walloon has been met with some resistance, notably in the 1996 article by Jean Lechanteur, published by the French: Société de Langue et de Littérature wallonnes.
The orthography has a strong presence on the internet, with the Walloon Wikipedia and Walloon Wiktionary both written using the Walloon: rifondou normalized spelling.
The table below shows letters, digraphs, and trigraphs (collectively referred to as graphemes) used by the Feller system and Common Walloon. The second and third columns show the sounds which are represented, transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet. Note that certain graphemes represent many different sounds in the Common Walloon alphabet, while in the Feller system most graphemes correspond to a single sound.
| Grapheme | Feller System | Common Walloon | Example | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A a | pronounced as /[a]/ | Walloon: gade pronounced as /[gat]/ (goat) | |||
| Â â | pronounced as /[a:]/ | Walloon: diâle pronounced as /[dja:l]/ (devil) | In Common ⟨å⟩ or ⟨a⟩ | ||
| Å å | pronounced as /[ɔ:]/ | pronounced as /[ɔ:/o:/ɑ:]/ | Walloon: djåzer pronounced as /[d͡ʒɔ:.'ze/d͡ʒa:.'ze]/ (to speak) | The pronunciation pronounced as /[d͡ʒa:.'ze]/ would be written djâzer in Feller | |
| AE ae | pronounced as /[a/ɛ]/ | Walloon: glaece pronounced as /[glas/glɛs]/ (ice) | In Feller glace ou glèce | ||
| AI ai | pronounced as /[e:/ɛ:]/ | Walloon: mwaisse pronounced as /[mwɛ:s/mɛ:s/me:s]/ (master) | In Feller ⟨ê⟩ is used for pronounced as /[ɛ:]/ and ⟨é⟩ for pronounced as /[e:]/, producing possible spellings: mêsse, mwêsse, mésse, maisse, maîsse | ||
| AN an | pronounced as /[ɑ̃]/ | pronounced as /[ɑ̃/ɔ̃]/ | Walloon: blanc pronounced as /[blã]/ (white) | ||
| B b | pronounced as /[b]/ | Walloon: bén pronounced as /[bẽ]/ (well, good) | |||
| C c | pronounced as /[k/s]/ | Walloon: crole pronounced as /[kʀɔl]/ (curl of hair) | |||
| Ç ç | pronounced as /[s]/ | Walloon: çoula pronounced as /[su.'la]/ (that) | |||
| CH ch | pronounced as /[ʃ]/ | pronounced as /[ʃ]/ (rare) | Walloon: chal pronounced as /[ʃal]/ (here) | In Common ⟨ci⟩, ⟨cy⟩, ⟨xh⟩, ⟨sch⟩, or ⟨sh⟩. The example word would be written cial pronounced as /[ʃal]/ or pronounced as /[sjal]/ | |
| D d | pronounced as /[d]/ | Walloon: wårder pronounced as /[wɔ:ʀ.'de/wa:ʀ.'de]/ (to keep) | The pronunciation pronounced as /[wa:ʀ.'de]/ would be written wârder in Feller | ||
| DJ dj | pronounced as /[dʒ]/ | Walloon: djin pronounced as /[d͡ʒɛ̃]/ (person) | |||
| E e | silent letter | pronounced as /[ɛ]/ | Walloon: efant pronounced as /[ɛ.'fã]/ (child) | ||
| É é | pronounced as /[e]/ | pronounced as /[e/i:]/ | Walloon: pés pronounced as /[pe]/ (cow's udder) | In Common, syllable-final é can also be pronounced pronounced as /[i:]/; thus the Common ceréjhe (cherry) could be written cèréhe, cèrîhe, cèlîhe, cèrîje,... in Feller | |
| EA ea | pronounced as /[ja/e:/ɛ:]/ | Walloon: bea pronounced as /[bja/be:/bɛ:]/ (beautiful) | In Feller bia, bé, bê | ||
| ÉN én | pronounced as /[ẽ]/ | pronounced as /[ẽ/ɛ̃]/ | Walloon: tchén pronounced as /[tʃẽ/tʃɛ̃]/ (dog) | In Feller tchén, tchîⁿ, tchin | |
| EU eu | pronounced as /[ø/œ/ə]/ | pronounced as /[ø:/œ:/ø/œ/ə]/ | Walloon: djeu pronounced as /[d͡ʒø/d͡ʒø:]/ (game) | In Feller the vowel length is noted, see ⟨eû⟩ below | |
| EÛ eû | pronounced as /[ø:/œ:]/ | Walloon: djeû pronounced as /[d͡ʒø:]/ (game) | In Common ⟨eu⟩ | ||
| EY ey | pronounced as /[ɛj/ɛ:j/i:j/i:]/ | Walloon: åjhey pronounced as /[ɔ:'ʒɛj]/ (easy) | In Feller ⟨èy⟩ or ⟨îy⟩: åhèy, âhèy, åhêye, åhî, âhî, auji, aujîye, aujîle,... | ||
| F f | pronounced as /[f]/ | Walloon: filozofe pronounced as /[fi.lɔ.'zɔf]/ (philosopher) | |||
| G g | pronounced as /[g]/ | Walloon: gueuye pronounced as /[gø:j]/ (face) | In Feller gueûye | ||
| GN gn | pronounced as /[ɲ]/ | Walloon: agnon pronounced as /[a.'ɲõ]/ (onion) | |||
| H h | pronounced as /[h]/ | pronounced as /[h]/ or silent | Walloon: hoye pronounced as /[hɔj]/ (coal) | In Feller hoye, oye, ouye | |
| HY hy | pronounced as /[ç]/ | Walloon: pèhyon pronounced as /[pɛ.çɔ̃]/ (fish) | In Common ⟨jh⟩, ⟨sch⟩, or ⟨xh⟩ | ||
| I i | pronounced as /[i/ɪ]/ | pronounced as /[i:/i/ɪ]/ | Walloon: pitit pronounced as /[pi.ti]/ (little) | Indicates the elidable weak vowel in Common, which has a wide variety of realizations depending on region; pitit, li ptit (little, the little) in Feller could be written pitit, putit, pëtit, pètit, peutit,...; li/lu/lë/èl/... p’tit | |
| Î î | pronounced as /[i:]/ | Walloon: pî pronounced as /[pi:]/ (foot) | In Common the circumflex is not used unless the ⟨i⟩ is before a voiceless consonant, otherwise it is automatically long: Walloon: Lidje pronounced as /[li:t͡ʃ]/ (Liège), in Feller Walloon: Lîdje | ||
| IN in | pronounced as /[ɛ̃]/ | Walloon: rinde pronounced as /[ʀɛ̃t]/ (to return) | |||
| J j | pronounced as /[ʒ]/ | Walloon: jate pronounced as /[ʒat]/ (cup) | Very rare in Common as this sound is either written ⟨jh⟩ or is from a foreign borrowing, in which case it is usually written ⟨dj⟩ (for example in djate pronounced as /[dʒat]/) | ||
| JH jh | pronounced as /[h/ʒ/ç]/ | Walloon: prijhon pronounced as /[pʀi:.ʒɔ̃/pʀi:.hɔ̃/pʀi:.çɔ̃]/ (prison) | In Feller prîjon, prîhon, prîhyon | ||
| K k | pronounced as /[k]/ | Walloon: stoumak pronounced as /[stu.'mak]/ (stomach) | |||
| L l | pronounced as /[l]/ | Walloon: lére pronounced as /[le:ʀ/li:ʀ]/ (to read) | The pronunciation pronounced as /[li:ʀ]/ would be written lîre in Feller | ||
| M m | pronounced as /[m]/ | Walloon: mwin pronounced as /[mwɛ̃/mɛ̃]/ (hand) | The pronunciation pronounced as /[mɛ̃]/ would be written min in Feller | ||
| N n | pronounced as /[n]/ | Walloon: nawe pronounced as /[naw]/ (lazy) | |||
| O o | pronounced as /[ɔ]/ | Walloon: soris pronounced as /[sɔʀi]/ (mouse) | |||
| Ô ô | pronounced as /[o:]/ | pronounced as /[o:/õ/ɔ̃/ʊ:]/ | Walloon: rôze pronounced as /[ʀo:s/ʀõs]/ | In Feller the nasalization is noted as rôⁿze or ronze | |
| OE oe | pronounced as /[wɛ/ø/ɛ/œ]/ | Walloon: moes pronounced as /[mwɛ/mø:]/ (month) | In Feller mwès, meûs | ||
| OI oi | pronounced as /[wa/wɛ/oː/ʊː]/ | Walloon: moirt pronounced as /[mwɛʀ/mwa:ʀ/moːʀ]/ (dead) | In Feller mwért, mwèrt, mwârt, mwart, môrt, moûrt | ||
| ON on | pronounced as /[ɔ̃]/ | Walloon: djondou pronounced as /[d͡ʒõ.'du]/ (touched) | |||
| OU ou | pronounced as /[u]/ | Walloon: atouwer pronounced as /[a.tu.'we]/ (to tutoie, to address someone informally) | |||
| OÛ oû | pronounced as /[u:]/ | Walloon: noû pronounced as /[nu:]/ (new) | |||
| P p | pronounced as /[p]/ | Walloon: aprinde pronounced as /[a.'pʀɛ̃t]/ (to learn) | |||
| Q q | Walloon: qwè pronounced as /[kwɛ]/ (what) | Non-standard pronounced as /[k]/, the example word is more often written cwè | |||
| R r | pronounced as /[ʀ]/ | Walloon: arester pronounced as /[a.ʀɛs.'te]/ (to stop) | In Feller arèster | ||
| S s | pronounced as /[s]/ | Walloon: sûner pronounced as /[sy:.ne]/ (to ooze) | |||
| SS ss | pronounced as /[s]/ | Walloon: dissu pronounced as /[di.'sy]/ (on top of) | |||
| SCH sch | pronounced as /[h/ʃ/ç/sk]/ | Walloon: scheter pronounced as /[skɛ.te/ʃɛ.te/hɛ.te/çɛ.te]/ (to break) | In Feller (è)skèter, chèter, hèter, hyèter | ||
| SH sh | pronounced as /[ʃ/s]/ | Walloon: shijh pronounced as /[si:h/ʃiːʒ]/ (six) | In Feller sîh, chîj | ||
| T t | pronounced as /[t]/ | Walloon: tins pronounced as /[tɛ̃]/ (time) | Even though the pronunciation is the same everywhere, in Feller there are variants: tins, timp, timps | ||
| TCH tch | pronounced as /[tʃ]/ | Walloon: tchant pronounced as /[tʃã]/ (song) | |||
| U u | pronounced as /[y]/ | Walloon: pus pronounced as /[py]/ (more) | |||
| Û û | pronounced as /[y:]/ | Walloon: ût pronounced as /[y:t]/ (eight) | |||
| Un un | pronounced as /[œ̃]/ | Walloon: djun pronounced as /[d͡ʒœ̃]/ (June) | Very rare sound in Walloon; djun and brun are basically the only words which use it | ||
| V v | pronounced as /[v]/ | Walloon: vint pronounced as /[vɛ̃]/ (wind) | |||
| W w | pronounced as /[w]/ | Walloon: walon pronounced as /[wa.lõ]/ (Walloon) | |||
| X x | pronounced as /[ks/gz]/ | Walloon: taxi pronounced as /[tak.si]/ (taxi) | Not used in Common (the example word is written tacsi), rare in Feller | ||
| XH xh | pronounced as /[h/ʃ/ç/x]/ | Walloon: pexhon pronounced as /[pɛ.ʃɔ̃/pɛ.hɔ̃/pɛ.çɔ̃]/ (fish) | In Feller pèchon/pèhon/pèhyon | ||
| Y y | pronounced as /[j]/ | Walloon: yebe pronounced as /[jɛp]/ (grass) | In Feller the palatalization is sometimes noted, giving Feller spellings such as yèbe, jèbe, êrb | ||
| Z z | pronounced as /[z]/ | Walloon: zûner pronounced as /[zy:ne]/ (to buzz) | |||
A word written using Common Walloon is spelled the same across the whole of the language area, regardless of the speakers pronunciation. This is accomplished with the use of diasystems (in Walloon Walloon: [[:wa:Betchfessî scrijha|betchfessîs scrijhas]]), which are always spelled the same but are pronounced differently depending on the region.
| Rifondou | Système Feller | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| — | Liège (east-walloon) | Bastogne (south-walloon) | Namur (center-walloon) | Charleroi (west-walloon) | |
| xh pexhon | h pèhon [pɛhɔ̃] | ch pèchon [pɛʃɔ̃] | |||
| jh prijhon | h prîhon [pʀiːhɔ̃] | j prîjon [pʀiːʒɔ̃] | |||
| sch schoûter | h hoûter [huːte] | ch choûter [ʃuːte] | sk, esk skoûter, eskoûter [skuːte], [ɛskuːte] | ||
| sh shonner | s son.ner [sɔ̃ne] | ch chon.ner [ʃɔ̃ne] | |||
| å åbe, måjhon(e) | å, o åbe, mohon(e) [ɔːp], [mɔhɔ̃] ([mɔhɔn]) | â â(r)be, mâjon(e) [aːp], [maːʒɔ̃] ([maːʒɔn]) | â, ô âbe, ôbe, môjone [aːp], [oːp], [moːʒɔn] | â, ô â(r)be, môjo [aː(ʀ)p], [moːʒɔ] | |
| ea tchapea | ê tchapê [t͡ʃapɛː] | ia tchapia [t͡ʃapja] | |||
| ae djaene, bataedje | è djène, batèdje [d͡ʒɛn], [batɛt͡ʃ] | a djane, batadje [d͡ʒan], [batat͡ʃ] | a, â djane, batâdje [d͡ʒan], [bataːt͡ʃ] | ||
| oe noer | eu neûr [nœːʁ] | wa nwâr [nwaːʁ] | wè nwêr [nwɛːʁ] | ||
| én vént | in, é, i, ié vin, vé, vi, vié [vɛ̃], [ve], [vɪ], [vi], [vje] | æ̃, é, i, ié væ̃, vin, vé, vi, vié [vɛ̃], [ve], [vɪ], [vi], [vje], [væ̃] | |||