WKB approximation explained

In mathematical physics, the WKB approximation or WKB method is a method for finding approximate solutions to linear differential equations with spatially varying coefficients. It is typically used for a semiclassical calculation in quantum mechanics in which the wavefunction is recast as an exponential function, semiclassically expanded, and then either the amplitude or the phase is taken to be changing slowly.

The name is an initialism for Wentzel–Kramers–Brillouin. It is also known as the LG or Liouville–Green method. Other often-used letter combinations include JWKB and WKBJ, where the "J" stands for Jeffreys.

Brief history

This method is named after physicists Gregor Wentzel, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, and Léon Brillouin, who all developed it in 1926.^[1] In 1923, mathematician Harold Jeffreys had developed a general method of approximating solutions to linear, second-order differential equations, a class that includes the Schrödinger equation. The Schrödinger equation itself was not developed until two years later, and Wentzel, Kramers, and Brillouin were apparently unaware of this earlier work, so Jeffreys is often neglected credit. Early texts in quantum mechanics contain any number of combinations of their initials, including WBK, BWK, WKBJ, JWKB and BWKJ. An authoritative discussion and critical survey has been given by Robert B. Dingle.^[2]

Earlier appearances of essentially equivalent methods are: Francesco Carlini in 1817, Joseph Liouville in 1837, George Green in 1837, Lord Rayleigh in 1912 and Richard Gans in 1915. Liouville and Green may be said to have founded the method in 1837, and it is also commonly referred to as the Liouville–Green or LG method.^{[3] [4]}

The important contribution of Jeffreys, Wentzel, Kramers, and Brillouin to the method was the inclusion of the treatment of turning points, connecting the evanescent and oscillatory solutions at either side of the turning point. For example, this may occur in the Schrödinger equation, due to a potential energy hill.

Formulation

Generally, WKB theory is a method for approximating the solution of a differential equation whose highest derivative is multiplied by a small parameter . The method of approximation is as follows.

For a differential equation$$\backslash varepsilon\; \backslash frac\; +\; a(x)\backslash frac\; +\; \backslash cdots\; +\; k(x)\backslash frac\; +\; m(x)y=\; 0,$$assume a solution of the form of an asymptotic series expansion$$y(x)\; \backslash sim\; \backslash exp\backslash left[\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash delta\}\backslash sum\_\{n=0\}^\{\backslash infty\}\; \backslash delta^n\; S\_n(x)\backslash right]$$in the limit . The asymptotic scaling of in terms of will be determined by the equation – see the example below.

Substituting the above ansatz into the differential equation and cancelling out the exponential terms allows one to solve for an arbitrary number of terms in the expansion.

WKB theory is a special case of multiple scale analysis.^{[5] [6] [7]}

An example

This example comes from the text of Carl M. Bender and Steven Orszag. Consider the second-order homogeneous linear differential equation$$\backslash epsilon^2\; \backslash frac\; =\; Q(x)\; y,$$where

Q(x) ≠ 0 . Substituting$$y(x)\; =\; \backslash exp\; \backslash left[\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash delta\}\; \backslash sum\_\{n=0\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash delta^n\; S\_n(x)\backslash right]$$results in the equation$$\backslash epsilon^2\backslash left[\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash delta^2\}\; \backslash left(\backslash sum\_\{n=0\}^\backslash infty\; \backslash delta^nS\_n\text{'}\backslash right)^2\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash delta\}\; \backslash sum\_\{n=0\}^\{\backslash infty\}\backslash delta^n\; S\_n\text{'}\text{'}\backslash right]\; =\; Q(x).$$

To leading order in ϵ (assuming, for the moment, the series will be asymptotically consistent), the above can be approximated as$$\backslash frac\; S\_0\text{'}^2\; +\; \backslash frac\; S\_0\text{'}\; S\_1\text{'}\; +\; \backslash frac\; S\_0$$ = Q(x).

In the limit, the dominant balance is given by$$\backslash frac\; S\_0\text{'}^2\; \backslash sim\; Q(x).$$

So is proportional to ϵ. Setting them equal and comparing powers yields$$\backslash epsilon^0:\; \backslash quad\; S\_0\text{'}^2\; =\; Q(x),$$which can be recognized as the eikonal equation, with solution$$S\_0(x)\; =\; \backslash pm\; \backslash int\_^x\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,dx\text{'}.$$

Considering first-order powers of fixes$$\backslash epsilon^1:\; \backslash quad\; 2\; S\_0\text{'}\; S\_1\text{'}\; +\; S\_0$$ = 0.This has the solution$$S\_1(x)\; =\; -\backslash frac\; \backslash ln\; Q(x)\; +\; k\_1,$$where is an arbitrary constant.

We now have a pair of approximations to the system (a pair, because can take two signs); the first-order WKB-approximation will be a linear combination of the two:$$y(x)\; \backslash approx\; c\_1\; Q^(x)\; \backslash exp\backslash left[\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash epsilon\}\; \backslash int\_\{x\_0\}^x\; \backslash sqrt\{Q(t)\}\; \backslash ,\; dt\backslash right]\; +\; c\_2\; Q^(x)\; \backslash exp\backslash left[-\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash epsilon\}\; \backslash int\_\{x\_0\}^x\backslash sqrt\{Q(t)\}\; \backslash ,\; dt\backslash right].$$

Higher-order terms can be obtained by looking at equations for higher powers of . Explicitly,$$2S\_0\text{'}\; S\_n\text{'}\; +\; S$$_ + \sum_^S'_j S'_ = 0for .

Precision of the asymptotic series

The asymptotic series for is usually a divergent series, whose general term starts to increase after a certain value . Therefore, the smallest error achieved by the WKB method is at best of the order of the last included term.

For the equation$$\backslash epsilon^2\; \backslash frac\; =\; Q(x)\; y,$$with an analytic function, the value

n _{max} and the magnitude of the last term can be estimated as follows:^[8] $$n\_\backslash max\; \backslash approx\; 2\backslash epsilon^\; \backslash left|\; \backslash int\_^\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,dz\; \backslash right|,$$$$\backslash delta^S\_(x\_0)\; \backslash approx\; \backslash sqrt\; \backslash exp[-n\_\backslash max],$$where x _{0} is the point at which y(x _{0)} needs to be evaluated and x _{\ast} is the (complex) turning point where Q(x _{\ast} ) = 0 , closest to x = x _{0} .

The number can be interpreted as the number of oscillations between

x _{0} and the closest turning point.

If

\epsilon ^{-1} Q(x) is a slowly changing function,$$\backslash epsilon\backslash left|\; \backslash frac\; \backslash right|\; \backslash ll\; Q^2,\; ^$$the number will be large, and the minimum error of the asymptotic series will be exponentially small.

Application in non relativistic quantum mechanics

The above example may be applied specifically to the one-dimensional, time-independent Schrödinger equation,$$-\backslash frac\; \backslash frac\; \backslash Psi(x)\; +\; V(x)\; \backslash Psi(x)\; =\; E\; \backslash Psi(x),$$which can be rewritten as$$\backslash frac\; \backslash Psi(x)\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash left(V(x)\; -\; E\; \backslash right)\; \backslash Psi(x).$$

Approximation away from the turning points

The wavefunction can be rewritten as the exponential of another function (closely related to the action), which could be complex,$$\backslash Psi(\backslash mathbf\; x)\; =\; e^,$$so that its substitution in Schrödinger's equation gives:

$$i\backslash hbar\; \backslash nabla^2\; S(\backslash mathbf\; x)\; -\; (\backslash nabla\; S(\backslash mathbf\; x))^2\; =\; 2m\; \backslash left(V(\backslash mathbf\; x)\; -\; E\; \backslash right),$$

Next, the semiclassical approximation is used. This means that each function is expanded as a power series in .$$S\; =\; S\_0\; +\; \backslash hbar\; S\_1\; +\; \backslash hbar^2\; S\_2\; +\; \backslash cdots$$Substituting in the equation, and only retaining terms up to first order in, we get:$$(\backslash nabla\; S\_0+\backslash hbar\; \backslash nabla\; S\_1)^2-i\backslash hbar(\backslash nabla^2\; S\_0)\; =\; 2m(E-V(\backslash mathbf\; x))$$which gives the following two relations:$$\backslash begin(\backslash nabla\; S\_0)^2=\; 2m\; (E-V(\backslash mathbf\; x))\; =\; (p(\backslash mathbf\; x))^2\backslash \backslash \; 2\backslash nabla\; S\_0\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; S\_1\; -\; i\; \backslash nabla^2\; S\_0\; =\; 0\; \backslash end$$which can be solved for 1D systems, first equation resulting in:$$S\_0(x)\; =\; \backslash pm\; \backslash int\; \backslash sqrt\; \backslash ,dx=\backslash pm\backslash int\; p(x)\; \backslash ,dx$$and the second equation computed for the possible values of the above, is generally expressed as:$$\backslash Psi(x)\; \backslash approx\; C\_+\; \backslash frac\; +\; C\_-\; \backslash frac$$

Thus, the resulting wavefunction in first order WKB approximation is presented as,^{[9] [10]}

In the classically allowed region, namely the region where

V(x) < E the integrand in the exponent is imaginary and the approximate wave function is oscillatory. In the classically forbidden region V(x) > E , the solutions are growing or decaying. It is evident in the denominator that both of these approximate solutions become singular near the classical turning points, where, and cannot be valid. (The turning points are the points where the classical particle changes direction.)

Hence, when

E > V(x) , the wavefunction can be chosen to be expressed as:$$\backslash Psi(x\text{'})\; \backslash approx\; C\; \backslash frac\; +\; D\; \backslash frac$$and for V(x) > E ,$$\backslash Psi(x\text{'})\; \backslash approx\; \backslash frac\; +\; \backslash frac\; .$$The integration in this solution is computed between the classical turning point and the arbitrary position x'.

Validity of WKB solutions

From the condition:$$(S\_0\text{'}(x))^2-(p(x))^2\; +\; \backslash hbar\; (2\; S\_0\text{'}(x)S\_1\text{'}(x)-iS\_0$$(x)) = 0

It follows that: $\backslash hbar\backslash mid\; 2\; S\_0\text{'}(x)S\_1\text{'}(x)\backslash mid+\backslash hbar\; \backslash mid\; i\; S\_0$(x)\mid \ll \mid(S_0'(x))^2\mid +\mid (p(x))^2\mid

For which the following two inequalities are equivalent since the terms in either side are equivalent, as used in the WKB approximation:

$$\backslash begin\backslash hbar\; \backslash mid\; S\_0$$(x)\mid \ll \mid(S_0'(x))^2\mid\\2\hbar \mid S_0'S_1' \mid \ll \mid(p'(x))^2\mid\end

The first inequality can be used to show the following:

$$\backslash begin\backslash hbar\; \backslash mid\; S\_0$$(x)\mid \ll \mid(p(x))\mid^2\\\frac\frac

\left|\frac\right| \ll |p(x)|^2\\\lambda \left|\frac\right| \ll \frac

^2

\\\end

where $|S\_0\text{'}(x)|=\; |p(x)|$ is used and $\backslash lambda(x)$ is the local de Broglie wavelength of the wavefunction. The inequality implies that the variation of potential is assumed to be slowly varying.^[11] This condition can also be restated as the fractional change of $E-V(x)$ or that of the momentum $p(x)$, over the wavelength $\backslash lambda$, being much smaller than $1$.^[12]

Similarly it can be shown that $\backslash lambda(x)$ also has restrictions based on underlying assumptions for the WKB approximation that:$$\backslash left|\backslash frac\backslash right|\; \backslash ll\; 1$$which implies that the de Broglie wavelength of the particle is slowly varying.

Behavior near the turning points

We now consider the behavior of the wave function near the turning points. For this, we need a different method. Near the first turning points,, the term

(2 m)/(\hbar ^{2}) \left(V(x) - E\right) can be expanded in a power series,$$\backslash frac\backslash left(V(x)-E\backslash right)\; =\; U\_1\; \backslash cdot\; (x\; -\; x\_1)\; +\; U\_2\; \backslash cdot\; (x\; -\; x\_1)^2\; +\; \backslash cdots\backslash ;.$$

To first order, one finds$$\backslash frac\; \backslash Psi(x)\; =\; U\_1\; \backslash cdot\; (x\; -\; x\_1)\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash Psi(x).$$This differential equation is known as the Airy equation, and the solution may be written in terms of Airy functions,^[13] $$\backslash Psi(x)\; =\; C\_A\; \backslash operatorname\backslash left(\backslash sqrt[3]\; \backslash cdot\; (x\; -\; x\_1)\; \backslash right)\; +\; C\_B\; \backslash operatorname\backslash left(\backslash sqrt[3]\; \backslash cdot\; (x\; -\; x\_1)\; \backslash right)=\; C\_A\; \backslash operatorname\backslash left(u\; \backslash right)\; +\; C\_B\; \backslash operatorname\backslash left(u\; \backslash right).$$

Although for any fixed value of

\hbar , the wave function is bounded near the turning points, the wave function will be peaked there, as can be seen in the images above. As \hbar gets smaller, the height of the wave function at the turning points grows. It also follows from this approximation that:

$$\backslash frac\backslash int\; p(x)\; dx\; =\; \backslash sqrt\; \backslash int\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,\; dx\; =\; \backslash frac\; 2\; 3\; (\backslash sqrt[3]\; (x-a))^\; =\; \backslash frac\; 2\; 3\; u^$$

Connection conditions

It now remains to construct a global (approximate) solution to the Schrödinger equation. For the wave function to be square-integrable, we must take only the exponentially decaying solution in the two classically forbidden regions. These must then "connect" properly through the turning points to the classically allowed region. For most values of, this matching procedure will not work: The function obtained by connecting the solution near

+inf ty to the classically allowed region will not agree with the function obtained by connecting the solution near -inf ty to the classically allowed region. The requirement that the two functions agree imposes a condition on the energy, which will give an approximation to the exact quantum energy levels.The wavefunction's coefficients can be calculated for a simple problem shown in the figure. Let the first turning point, where the potential is decreasing over x, occur at x = x _{1} and the second turning point, where potential is increasing over x, occur at x = x _{2} . Given that we expect wavefunctions to be of the following form, we can calculate their coefficients by connecting the different regions using Airy and Bairy functions.

$$\backslash begin\; \backslash Psi\_\; (x)\; \backslash approx\; A\; \backslash frac\; +\; B\; \backslash frac\; \backslash \backslash \; \backslash Psi\_(x)\; \backslash approx\; C\; \backslash frac\; +\; D\; \backslash frac\backslash \backslash$$

\end

First classical turning point

For

U _{1} < 0 ie. decreasing potential condition or x = x _{1} in the given example shown by the figure, we require the exponential function to decay for negative values of x so that wavefunction for it to go to zero. Considering Bairy functions to be the required connection formula, we get:^[14]

$$\backslash begin\backslash operatorname(u)\; \backslash rightarrow\; -\backslash frac\backslash frac\; \backslash sin\; \backslash quad\; \backslash textrm\; \backslash quad\; u\; \backslash rightarrow\; -\backslash infty\backslash \backslash \backslash operatorname(u)\; \backslash rightarrow\; \backslash frac\backslash frac\; e^\; \backslash quad\; \backslash textrm\; \backslash quad\; u\; \backslash rightarrow\; +\backslash infty\; \backslash \backslash \backslash end$$

We cannot use Airy function since it gives growing exponential behaviour for negative x. When compared to WKB solutions and matching their behaviours at

\pm inf ty , we conclude:B =- D = N ,A = C =0 and \alpha = (\pi)/(4) .

Thus, letting some normalization constant be

N , the wavefunction is given for increasing potential (with x) as:\Psi _{WKB} (x) = \begin{cases} - (N)/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) }\exp & \text x < x_1\\ \frac \sin & \text x_2 > x > x_1 \\ \end

Second classical turning point

For

U _{1} > 0 ie. increasing potential condition or x = x _{2} in the given example shown by the figure, we require the exponential function to decay for positive values of x so that wavefunction for it to go to zero. Considering Airy functions to be the required connection formula, we get:

$$\backslash begin\backslash operatorname\; (u)\backslash rightarrow\; \backslash frac\backslash frac\; e^\; \backslash quad\; \backslash textrm\; \backslash quad\; u\; \backslash rightarrow\; +\; \backslash infty\; \backslash \backslash \backslash operatorname(u)\; \backslash rightarrow\; \backslash frac\backslash frac\; \backslash cos\; \backslash quad\; \backslash textrm\; \backslash quad\; u\; \backslash rightarrow\; -\backslash infty\backslash \backslash \backslash end$$

We cannot use Bairy function since it gives growing exponential behaviour for positive x. When compared to WKB solutions and matching their behaviours at

\pm inf ty , we conclude:2 A = C = N' ,D = B =0 and \alpha = (\pi)/(4) .

Thus, letting some normalization constant be

N' , the wavefunction is given for increasing potential (with x) as:\Psi _{WKB} (x) = \begin{cases} (N')/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) } \cos & \text x_1 < x < x_2 \\ \frac\exp & \text x > x_2\\ \end

Common oscillating wavefunction

Matching the two solutions for region

x _{1<x<x} _{2} , it is required that the difference between the angles in these functions is \pi(n +1 / 2 ) where the (\pi)/(2) phase difference accounts for changing cosine to sine for the wavefunction and n \pi difference since negation of the function can occur by letting N = ( -1 ) ^{n} N' . Thus:$$\backslash int\_^\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,dx\; =\; (n+1/2)\backslash pi\; \backslash hbar,$$Where n is a non-negative integer. This condition can also be rewritten as saying that:

The area enclosed by the classical energy curve is

2 \pi\hbar(n +1 / 2 ) .Either way, the condition on the energy is a version of the Bohr–Sommerfeld quantization condition, with a "Maslov correction" equal to 1/2.^[15]

It is possible to show that after piecing together the approximations in the various regions, one obtains a good approximation to the actual eigenfunction. In particular, the Maslov-corrected Bohr–Sommerfeld energies are good approximations to the actual eigenvalues of the Schrödinger operator.^[16] Specifically, the error in the energies is small compared to the typical spacing of the quantum energy levels. Thus, although the "old quantum theory" of Bohr and Sommerfeld was ultimately replaced by the Schrödinger equation, some vestige of that theory remains, as an approximation to the eigenvalues of the appropriate Schrödinger operator.

General connection conditions

Thus, from the two cases the connection formula is obtained at a classical turning point,

x = a :(N)/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) } \sin \Longrightarrow - \frac\exp

and:

(N')/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) } \cos \Longleftarrow \frac\exp

The WKB wavefunction at the classical turning point away from it is approximated by oscillatory sine or cosine function in the classically allowed region, represented in the left and growing or decaying exponentials in the forbidden region, represented in the right. The implication follows due to the dominance of growing exponential compared to decaying exponential. Thus, the solutions of oscillating or exponential part of wavefunctions can imply the form of wavefunction on the other region of potential as well as at the associated turning point.

Probability density

One can then compute the probability density associated to the approximate wave function. The probability that the quantum particle will be found in the classically forbidden region is small. In the classically allowed region, meanwhile, the probability the quantum particle will be found in a given interval is approximately the fraction of time the classical particle spends in that interval over one period of motion.^[17] Since the classical particle's velocity goes to zero at the turning points, it spends more time near the turning points than in other classically allowed regions. This observation accounts for the peak in the wave function (and its probability density) near the turning points.

Applications of the WKB method to Schrödinger equations with a large variety of potentials and comparison with perturbation methods and path integrals are treated in Müller-Kirsten.^[18]

Examples in quantum mechanics

Although WKB potential only applies to smoothly varying potentials, in the examples where rigid walls produce infinities for potential, the WKB approximation can still be used to approximate wavefunctions in regions of smoothly varying potentials. Since the rigid walls have highly discontinuous potential, the connection condition cannot be used at these points and the results obtained can also differ from that of the above treatment.

Bound states for 1 rigid wall

The potential of such systems can be given in the form:

V(x) = \begin{cases} V(x) & if x \geq x _{1\\} inf ty & if x < x _{1} \\ \end{cases}

where .

Finding wavefunction in bound region, ie. within classical turning points $x\_1$ and $x\_2$, by considering approximations far from $x\_1$ and $x\_2$ respectively we have two solutions:

\Psi _{WKB} (x) = (A)/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) }\sin \Psi _{WKB} (x) = (B)/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) }\cos

Since wavefunction must vanish near $x\_1$, we conclude $\backslash alpha\; =\; 0$. For airy functions near $x\_2$, we require $\backslash beta\; =\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash pi\; 4$. We require that angles within these functions have a phase difference

\pi(n +1 / 2 ) where the (\pi)/(2) phase difference accounts for changing sine to cosine and n \pi allowing B = ( -1 ) ^{n} A .

$$\backslash frac\; 1\; \backslash hbar\; \backslash int\_^\; |p(x)|\; dx\; =\; \backslash pi\; \backslash left(n\; +\; \backslash frac\; 3\; 4\backslash right)$$Where n is a non-negative integer. Note that the right hand side of this would instead be

\pi(n -1 / 4 ) if n was only allowed to non-zero natural numbers.

Thus we conclude that, for $n\; =\; 1,2,3,\backslash cdots$$$\backslash int\_^\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,dx\; =\; \backslash left(n-\backslash frac\; 1\; 4\backslash right)\backslash pi\; \backslash hbar$$In 3 dimensions with spherically symmetry, the same condition holds where the position x is replaced by radial distance r, due to its similarity with this problem.^[19]

Bound states within 2 rigid wall

The potential of such systems can be given in the form:

V(x) = \begin{cases} inf ty & if x > x _{2} \\ V(x) & if x _{2} \geq x \geq x _{1\\} inf ty & if x < x _{1} \\ \end{cases}

where .

For $E\; \backslash geq\; V(x)$ between $x\_1$ and $x\_2$ which are thus the classical turning points, by considering approximations far from $x\_1$ and $x\_2$ respectively we have two solutions:

\Psi _{WKB} (x) = (A)/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) }\sin \Psi _{WKB} (x) = (B)/(\sqrt{|p(x)|) }\sin

Since wavefunctions must vanish at $x\_1$ and $x\_2$. Here, the phase difference only needs to account for

n \pi which allows B = ( -1 ) ^{n} A . Hence the condition becomes:

$$\backslash int\_^\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,dx\; =\; n\backslash pi\; \backslash hbar$$where $n\; =\; 1,2,3,\backslash cdots$ but not equal to zero since it makes the wavefunction zero everywhere.

Quantum bouncing ball

Consider the following potential a bouncing ball is subjected to:

V(x) = \begin{cases} mgx & if x \geq 0 \\ inf ty & if x < 0 \\ \end{cases}

The wavefunction solutions of the above can be solved using the WKB method by considering only odd parity solutions of the alternative potential

V(x) = mg|x| . The classical turning points are identified $x\_1\; =\; -$ and $x\_2\; =$. Thus applying the quantization condition obtained in WKB:

$$\backslash int\_^\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,dx\; =\; (n\_+1/2)\backslash pi\; \backslash hbar$$

Letting $n\_=2n-1$ where $n\; =\; 1,2,3,\backslash cdots$, solving for $E$ with given

V(x) = mg|x| , we get the quantum mechanical energy of a bouncing ball:^[20]

$$E\; =\; (mg^2\backslash hbar^2)^.$$

This result is also consistent with the use of equation from bound state of one rigid wall without needing to consider an alternative potential.

Quantum Tunneling

See main article: Quantum tunnelling. The potential of such systems can be given in the form:

where .

It's solutions for an incident wave is given:

\end

Where the wavefunction in the classically forbidden region is the WKB approximation but neglecting the growing exponential, which is a fair assumption for wide potential barriers through which the wavefunction is not expected to grow to high magnitudes.

By the requirement of continuity of wavefunction and its derivatives, the following relation can be shown:$$\backslash frac$$

^2

^2

= \frac \frac\exp\left(-\frac 2 \hbar \int_^ |p(x')| dx'\right)

where

a _{1} = |p(x _{1)|} and a _{2} = |p(x _{2)|} .

Using $\backslash mathbf\; J(\backslash mathbf\; x,t)\; =\; \backslash frac(\backslash psi^*\; \backslash nabla\backslash psi-\backslash psi\backslash nabla\backslash psi^*)$ we express the values without signs as:

$J\_\; =\; \backslash frac(\backslash frac|A|^2)$

$J\_\; =\; \backslash frac(\backslash frac|B|^2)$

$J\_\; =\; \backslash frac(\backslash frac|E|^2)$

Thus, the transmission coefficient is found to be:

$$T\; =\; \backslash frac$$

^2

^2

= \frac \frac\exp\left(-\frac 2 \hbar \int_^ |p(x')| dx'\right)

where $p(x)\; =\; \backslash sqrt$,

a _{1} = |p(x _{1)|} and a _{2} = |p(x _{2)|} . The result can be stated as $T\; \backslash sim\; ~\; e^$ where $\backslash gamma\; =\; \backslash int\_^\; |p(x\text{'})|\; dx\text{'}$.

See also

• Airy function
• Einstein–Brillouin–Keller method
• Field electron emission
• Instanton
• Langer correction
• Maslov index
• Method of dominant balance
• Method of matched asymptotic expansions
• Method of steepest descent
• Old quantum theory
• Perturbation methods
• Quantum tunneling
• Slowly varying envelope approximation
• Supersymmetric WKB approximation

References

Modern references

• Book: Carl M. Bender . Bender, Carl . Steven A. Orszag . Orszag, Steven . Advanced Mathematical Methods for Scientists and Engineers . McGraw-Hill . 1978 . 0-07-004452-X.
• Book: Child, M. S. . Semiclassical mechanics with molecular applications . 1991 . Clarendon Press . Oxford . 0-19-855654-3.
• Book: Fröman. N. . Fröman . P.-O.. JWKB Approximation: Contributions to the Theory . North-Holland . Amsterdam . 1965.
• Book: Griffiths, David J. . Introduction to Quantum Mechanics . 2nd . Prentice Hall . 2004 . 0-13-111892-7.
  • Book: Liboff, Richard L. . Introductory Quantum Mechanics . 4th . Addison-Wesley . 2003 . 0-8053-8714-5. Liboff, Richard L .
• Book: Olver, Frank William John . Frank William John Olver . Asymptotics and Special Functions . registration . Academic Press . 1974 . 0-12-525850-X.
• Book: Razavy, Mohsen . Quantum Theory of Tunneling . registration . World Scientific . 2003 . 981-238-019-1.
• Book: Sakurai, J. J. . . Addison-Wesley . 1993 . 0-201-53929-2.

Historical references

• Book: Carlini, Francesco . 1817 . Ricerche sulla convergenza della serie che serva alla soluzione del problema di Keplero . Milano . Francesco Carlini .
• Liouville, Joseph . 1837 . Sur le développement des fonctions et séries... Journal de Mathématiques Pures et Appliquées . 1 . 16–35 . Joseph Liouville .
• Green, George . 1837 . On the motion of waves in a variable canal of small depth and width . Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society . 6 . 457–462 . George Green (mathematician) .
• Rayleigh, Lord (John William Strutt) . 1912 . On the propagation of waves through a stratified medium, with special reference to the question of reflection . . 86 . 207–226 . 10.1098/rspa.1912.0014 . 1912RSPSA..86..207R . 586 . Lord Rayleigh . free .
• Gans, Richard . 1915 . Fortplantzung des Lichts durch ein inhomogenes Medium . Annalen der Physik . 47 . 14 . 709–736 . 10.1002/andp.19153521402 . 1915AnP...352..709G . Richard Gans .
• Jeffreys, Harold . 1924 . On certain approximate solutions of linear differential equations of the second order . Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society . 23 . 428–436 . 10.1112/plms/s2-23.1.428 . Harold Jeffreys .
• Brillouin, Léon . 1926 . La mécanique ondulatoire de Schrödinger: une méthode générale de resolution par approximations successives . Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences . 183 . 24–26 . Léon Brillouin .
• Kramers, Hendrik A. . 1926 . Wellenmechanik und halbzahlige Quantisierung . Zeitschrift für Physik . 39 . 828–840 . 10.1007/BF01451751 . 1926ZPhy...39..828K . 10–11 . 122955156 . Hendrik Anthony Kramers .
• Wentzel, Gregor . 1926 . Eine Verallgemeinerung der Quantenbedingungen für die Zwecke der Wellenmechanik . Zeitschrift für Physik . 38 . 518–529 . 10.1007/BF01397171 . 1926ZPhy...38..518W . 6–7 . 120096571 . Gregor Wentzel .

External links

• Web site: Richard . Fitzpatrick . The W.K.B. Approximation. 2002. (An application of the WKB approximation to the scattering of radio waves from the ionosphere.)

Notes and References

1. Section 15.1
2. Book: Dingle, Robert Balson . Asymptotic Expansions: Their Derivation and Interpretation . Academic Press . 1973 . 0-12-216550-0 .
3. Book: Atmosphere-ocean dynamics . Adrian E. Gill . Academic Press . 1982 . 978-0-12-283522-3 . 297 . registration . Liouville-Green WKBJ WKB. .
4. Book: A Survey on the Liouville–Green (WKB) approximation for linear difference equations of the second order . Renato Spigler . Marco Vianello . amp . Advances in difference equations: proceedings of the Second International Conference on Difference Equations : Veszprém, Hungary, August 7–11, 1995 . Saber Elaydi . I. Győri . G. E. Ladas . CRC Press . 1998 . 978-90-5699-521-8 . 567 . https://books.google.com/books?id=a36iXw5_VzcC&dq=Liouville-Green+WKBJ+WKB+LG&pg=PA567 .
5. Book: Filippi , Paul . Acoustics: basic physics, theory and methods . Academic Press . 1999 . 978-0-12-256190-0 . 171 .
6. Book: Kevorkian, J. . Cole, J. D. . Multiple scale and singular perturbation methods . 1996 . Springer . 0-387-94202-5 .
7. Book: Carl M. . Bender . Carl M. Bender . Steven A. . Orszag . Steven Orszag . Advanced mathematical methods for scientists and engineers . Springer . 1999 . 0-387-98931-5 . 549–568 .
8. Winitzki . S. . 2005 . gr-qc/0510001 . Cosmological particle production and the precision of the WKB approximation . Phys. Rev. D . 72 . 10 . 104011, 14 pp . 10.1103/PhysRevD.72.104011 . 2005PhRvD..72j4011W . 119152049 .
9. Section 15.4
10. Book: Zettili, Nouredine . Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications . 2009 . Wiley . 978-0-470-02679-3 . 2nd . Chichester.
11. Web site: Zwiebach . Barton . Semiclassical approximation .
12. Book: Bransden . B. H. . Physics of Atoms and Molecules . Joachain . Charles Jean . 2003 . Prentice Hall . 978-0-582-35692-4 . 140–141 . en.
13. Section 15.5
14. Ramkarthik . M. S. . Pereira . Elizabeth Louis . 2021-06-01 . Airy Functions Demystified — II . Resonance . en . 26 . 6 . 757–789 . 10.1007/s12045-021-1179-z . 0973-712X.
15. Section 15.2
16. Theorem 15.8
17. Conclusion 15.5
18. Harald J.W. Müller-Kirsten, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics: Schrödinger Equation and Path Integral, 2nd ed. (World Scientific, 2012).
19. Book: Weinberg, Steven . Lectures on Quantum Mechanics . 2015-09-10 . Cambridge University Press . 978-1-107-11166-0 . 2nd . 204. 10.1017/cbo9781316276105 .
20. Book: Sakurai . Jun John . Modern quantum mechanics . Napolitano . Jim . 2021 . Cambridge University Press . 978-1-108-47322-4 . 3rd . Cambridge.