Hindu units of time explained

Hindu units of time are described in Hindu texts ranging from microseconds to trillions of years, including cycles of cosmic time that repeat general events in Hindu cosmology.[1] [2] Time () is described as eternal. Various fragments of time are described in the Vedas, Manusmriti, Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Mahabharata, Surya Siddhanta etc.[3] [4] [5]

Sidereal metrics

See also: Sidereal and tropical astrology and Sidereal time.

Sidereal astrology maintains the alignment between signs and constellations via corrective systems of Hindu (Vedic)-origin known as ayanamsas (Sanskrit: 'ayana' "movement" + 'aṃśa "component"), to allow for the observed precession of equinoxes, whereas tropical astrology ignores precession.[6] This has caused the two systems, which were aligned around 2,000 years ago, to drift apart over the centuries.[7]

Ayanamsa systems used in Hindu astrology (also known as Vedic astrology) include the Lahiriayanamsa and the Raman ayanamsa.[8] The Fagan-Bradley ayanamsa is an example of an ayanamsa system used in Western sidereal astrology. As of 2020, zodiacal signs calculated using the Sri Yukteswar ayanamsa were around 23 degrees behind tropical zodiacal signs. Per these calculations, persons born between March 12 - April 12, for instance, would have the sun sign of Pisces. By contrast, persons born between March 21 - April 19 would have the sun sign of Aries per tropical calculations.[9]

Sidereal Units:

UnitDefinitionValue in SI units
truti (Sanskrit: त्रुटि)base unit≈ 300 ns
renu (Sanskrit: रेणु)60 truti≈ 18 μs
lava (Sanskrit: लव)60 renu≈ 1,080 μs
(Sanskrit: लीक्षक)60 lava≈ 64.8 ms
(Sanskrit: लिप्ता)6 ≈ 0.3888 s
vipala (Sanskrit: विपल)
[10] (Sanskrit: प्राण)10 ≈ 3.888 s
pala (Sanskrit: पल)60 or 6 ≈ 24 s
(Sanskrit: विघटि)
(Sanskrit: विनाडी)
(Sanskrit: घटि)60 ≈ 1.44 ks (24 min)
(Sanskrit: नाडी)
danda (Sanskrit: दण्ड)
(Sanskrit: मुहूर्त)2 ≈ 2.88 ks (48 min)

(sidereal day; Sanskrit: नक्षत्र अहोरात्रम्)
60 ≈ 86.4 ks (24 h)
30

According to :[11]

UnitDefinitionValue in SI units
trutibase unit≈ 29.6 μs
tatpara100 truti≈ 2.96 ms
nimesha30 tatpara≈ 88.9 ms
18 nimesha≈ 1.6 s
30 ≈ 48 s
ghatika30 ≈ 1.44 ks (24 min)
2 ghatika≈ 2.88 ks (48 min)

(sidereal day)
30 ≈ 86.4 ks (24 h)

Small units of time used in the Vedas:

UnitDefinitionValue in SI units
base unit≈ 26.3 μs
2 ≈ 52.67 μs
3 ≈ 158 μs
3 ≈ 474 μs
vedha100 ≈ 47.4 ms
lava3 vedha≈ 0.14 s
3 lava≈ 0.43 s
3 ≈ 1.28 s
5 ≈ 6.4 s
laghu15 ≈ 96 s (1.6 min)
danda (nadika)15 laghu≈ 1.44 ks (24 min)
2 danda≈ 2.88 ks (48 min)

(sidereal day)
30 ≈ 86.4 ks (24 h)
masa (month)30 ≈ 2,592 ks
ritu (season)2 masa≈ 5,184 ks
ayana3 ritu≈ 15,552 ks (6 mth)
samvatsara (year)2 ayana≈ 31,104 ks
of Deva

Lunar metrics

See also: Lunar distance (astronomy), Orbit of the Moon, Ephemeris and Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar.

The traditional lunar calendar system measures time based on the Moon's phases and its relation to the Sun. Unlike solar calendars, it uses units such as tithi (lunar day), pakṣa (lunar fortnight), māsa (lunar month), ṛitu (season), ayanam (half-year), and varsha (lunar year) to structure the year.[12] This system was integral to ancient cultures for tracking time, planning festivals, and guiding agricultural practices. The following section provides an overview of these key time units and their relationships:[13]

UnitDefinitionEquivalence
tithi (lunar day)Time for 12° increase of longitudinal angle between Moon and Sun≈ 1 day (varies 19–26 hours)
(lunar fortnight)15 tithis≈ 15 days
(lunar month)2 : gaura (bright) or during waxing moon; (dark) during waning moon≈ 30 days (29.5 days)
(season)2 ≈ 60 days
ayanam3 ≈ 180 days
varsha (lunar year)2 ayanams≈ 360 days (354.36707 days)

Tropical metrics

See also: Tropical year.

Tropical metrics are time units used to measure intervals based on the tropical year and related cycles. This system includes units such as ghaṭi (base unit), yāma (a period of 7.5 ghaṭis), and ahorātram (a full day comprising 8 yāmas).[14] The following section explains these units and their approximate durations, offering insight into how time is organized in relation to the tropical year:

UnitDefinitionEquivalence
(Sanskrit: घटि)base unit≈ 24 minutes
(Sanskrit: याम)7.5 ≈ 3 hours
(Sanskrit: अहोरात्रम्)8 ≈ 24 hours (tropical day starting at sunrise)

Cosmic metrics

The table below contains calculations of cosmic Hindu units of time as experienced by different entities, namely humans, Pitris (forefathers), Devas (gods), Manu (progenitor of humanity), and Brahma (creator god). Calculations use a traditional 360-day year (twelve 30-day months) and a standard 24-hour day for all entities.

Unit! scope="col"
DefinitionHumanPitriDevaManuBrahma
36,000 kalpa & pralaya311,040,000,000,000 yr10,368,000,000,000 yr864,000,000,000 yr~100 yr
length
155,520,000,000,000 yr5,184,000,000,000 yr432,000,000,000 yr~50 yr
kalpa14 m + 15 ms; 1,000 cy4,320,000,000 yr144,000,000 yr12,000,000 yr~12 h
pralayakalpa length
manvantara [m]71 306,720,000 yr10,224,000 yr852,000 yr100 yr
[ms] length1,728,000 yr57,600 yr4,800 yr~17.28 s
[cy],, & Kali-yugas4,320,000 yr144,000 yr12,000 yr~43.20 s
 
sum total1,728,000 yr57,600 yr4,800 yr~17.28 s
length144,000 yr4,800 yr400 yr~1.44 s
4 Kali-yuga lengths1,440,000 yr48,000 yr4,000 yr~14.40 s
 
sum total1,296,000 yr43,200 yr3,600 yr~12.96 s
length108,000 yr3,600 yr300 yr~1.08 s
3 Kali-yuga lengths1,080,000 yr36,000 yr3,000 yr~10.80 s
 
sum total864,000 yr28,800 yr2,400 yr~8.64 s
length72,000 yr2,400 yr200 yr~0.72 s
2 Kali-yuga lengths720,000 yr24,000 yr2,000 yr~7.20 s
 
Kali-yugasum total432,000 yr14,400 yr1,200 yr~4.32 s
Kali-yuga length36,000 yr1,200 yr100 yr~0.36 s
Kali-yuga1,000 Deva years360,000 yr12,000 yr1,000 yr~3.60 s

Lifespans

Hindu texts define lifespans differently for humans, Pitris (forefathers), Devas (gods), Manus (progenitors of mankind), and Brahma (creator god). The division of a year for each is twelve 30-day months or 360 days, where a day is divided into a 12-hour day proper and 12-hour night.[15] A 30-day month amounts to four 7-day weeks with an extra 8th day every two weeks (48-week year). A traditional human year is measured by the sun's northern (uttarayana) and southern (dakshinayana) movements in the sky, where the new year commences only when the sun returns to the same starting point and a pause on the commencement otherwise. Ebenezer Burgess postulates an intercalary month was inserted every five years to anciently maintain the correspondence of the 360-day years with the true solar years (~365.24-day years). For this reason, a traditional 360-day year is equivalent to a modern ~365.24-day solar or tropical year.

Unit! scope="col"
HumanPitriDevaManuBrahma
Brahma year3,110,400,000,000 yr103,680,000,000 yr8,640,000,000 yr~1 yr
Manu year3,067,200 yr102,240 yr8,520 yr1 yr
Deva year360 yr12 yr1 yr~
Pitri year30 yr1 yr~
Human year1 yr~

Cosmic date

According to Puranic sources, Krishna's departure marks the end of the human age of Dvapara-yuga and the start of Kali-yuga, which is dated to midnight on 17/18 February 3102BCE of the proleptic Julian calendar. We are currently halfway through Brahma's life (maha-kalpa), whose lifespan is equal to the duration of the manifested material elements, from which Brahma manifests his universe in kalpa cycles:[16] [17]

A maha-kalpa is followed by a maha-pralaya (full dissolution) of equal length. Each kalpa (day of Brahma) is followed by a pralaya (night of Brahma or partial dissolution) of equal length. Preceding the first and following each manvantara is a manvantara-sandhya (connection period), each with a length of Krita-yuga (Satya-yuga).

Hindu texts specify that the start and end of each of the yugas are marked by astronomical alignments. This cycle's Treta-yuga began with 5 planets residing in the "Aries" constellation. This cycle's Dvapara-yuga ended with the "Saptarshi" constellation (Ursa major) residing in the "Magha" constellation. The current Kali-yuga will end with the Sun, Moon and Jupiter residing in the "Pushya" sector.[18]

Human

See main article: Yuga Cycle.

The history of humanity is divided up into four yugas (dharmic ages or world ages)— (pronounced Krita-yuga; Satya-yuga), , and Kali-yuga—each with a 25% decline in dharmic practices and length, giving proportions (; pronounced charanas) of 4:3:2:1 (e.g. Satya: 100% start; Kali: 25% start, 0% end), indicating a de-evolution in spiritual consciousness and an evolution in material consciousness. Kali-yuga is followed by Satya-yuga of the next cycle, where a cycle is called a (pronounced chatur-yuga; mahā-yuga). Each yuga is divided into a main period (yuga proper) and two yuga-sandhis (; connecting periods)⁠— (dawn) and (; dusk)⁠—where each yuga-sandhi lasts for 10% of the main period. Lengths are given in divine years (celestial or Deva years), where a divine year lasts for 360 solar (human) years. A chatur-yuga lasts for 4.32 million solar (12,000 divine) years with 1,728,000 years of Krita-yuga, 1,296,000 years of Treta-yuga, 864,000 years of Dvapara-yuga, and 432,000 years of Kali-yuga.[19] [20] [21] [22]

Current yuga

Kali-yuga lasts for 432,000 years and is the 4th of 4 yugas in a cycle as well as the current yuga, with two sandhyas, each lasting for 36,000 years:

= current year + Kali-yuga start year - year zero

= + 3102 - 1

= years

= Kali-yuga-sandhya - elapsed Kali-yuga

= 36,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)

= years

= Kali-yuga - Kali-yuga-sandhyamsa - elapsed Kali-yuga

= 432,000 - 36,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)

= years

= Kali-yuga - elapsed Kali-yuga

= 432,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)

= years

Current chatur yuga

A chatur-yuga lasts for 4.32million years, where the current is the 28th of 71:

= chatur-yuga - Kali-yuga + elapsed Kali-yuga

= 4,320,000 - 432,000 + (+ 3102 - 1)

= years

≈ million years

= Kali-yuga - elapsed Kali-yuga

= 432,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)

= years

28th chatur-yuga
YugaStart (– End)Length
Krita (Satya)3,891,102BCE1,728,000 (4,800)
Treta2,163,102BCE1,296,000 (3,600)
Dvapara867,102BCE864,000 (2,400)
Kali
3102BCE428,899CE432,000 (1,200)
Years: 4,320,000 solar (12,000 divine)

Pitri

The lifespan of the Pitris (forefathers) lasts for 100 of their years.

Deva

The lifespan of the Devas (gods) lasts for 100 of their years.

Manu

See main article: Manvantara.

The lifespan of the Manus (progenitors of mankind) lasts for 100 of their years. Each Manu reigns over a period called a manvantara, each lasting for 71 chatur-yugas (306.72 million years). A total of 14 Manus reign successively in one kalpa (day of Brahma). Preceding the first and following each manvantara is a (connection period), each lasting the duration of Satya-yuga (1.728 million years). During each (manvantara-sandhi), Earth (Bhu-loka) is submerged in water.[23] [24] [25]

Current manvantara

A manvantara lasts for 306.72million years, where the current (ruled by Vaivasvatha Manu) is the 7th of 14:

= elapsed 28th chatur-yuga + 27 chatur-yugas

= chatur-yuga - Kali-yuga + elapsed Kali-yuga + 27 chatur-yugas

= (4,320,000 - 432,000 + (+ 3102 - 1)) + 4,320,000 * 27

= years

≈ million years

= remaining 28th chatur-yuga + 43 chatur-yugas

= Kali-yuga - elapsed Kali-yuga + 43 chatur-yugas

= (432,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)) + 4,320,000 * 43

= years

≈ million years

Brahma

See main article: Kalpa (time).

The lifespan of Brahma (creator god) lasts for 100 of his years. His 12-hour day or kalpa (day of Brahma) is followed by a 12-hour night or pralaya (night of Brahma) of equal length, each lasting for 4.32 billion years. A kalpa lasts for 1,000 chatur-yugas and has 14 manvantaras and 15 manvantara-sandhyas occurring in it. At the start of Brahma's days, he is re-born and creates the planets and the first living entities. At the end of his days, he and his creations are unmanifest (partial dissolution). His 100-year life (311.04 trillion years) is called a, which is followed by a (full dissolution) of equal length, where the bases of the universe, prakriti, is manifest at the start and unmanifest at the end of a maha-kalpa. His 100-year life is divided into two 50-year periods, each called a .[25] [26] In 100 360-day years (maha-kalpa), there are a total of 36,000 full days: 36,000 kalpas (days proper) and 36,000 pralayas (nights).

Current kalpa

A kalpa (day of Brahma, 12 hours) lasts for 4.32billion years, where the current (Shveta-Varaha Kalpa) is the 1st of 30 in his 1st month of his 51st year:

= elapsed 7th manvantara + 7 manvantara-sandhyas + 6 manvantaras

= elapsed 28th chatur-yuga + 27 chatur-yugas + 7 manvantara-sandhyas + 6 manvantaras

= chatur-yuga - Kali-yuga + elapsed Kali-yuga + 27 chatur-yugas + 7 manvantara-sandhyas + 6 manvantaras

= ((4,320,000 - 432,000 + (+ 3102 - 1)) + 4,320,000 * 27) + 1,728,000 * 7 + 306,720,000 * 6

= years

≈ billion years

= remaining 7th manvantara + 8 manvantara-sandhyas + 7 manvantaras

= remaining 28th chatur-yuga + 43 chatur-yugas + 8 manvantara-sandhyas + 7 manvantaras

= Kali-yuga - elapsed Kali-yuga + 43 chatur-yugas + 8 manvantara-sandhyas + 7 manvantaras

= ((432,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)) + 4,320,000 * 43) + 1,728,000 * 8 + 306,720,000 * 7

= years

≈ billion years

Current maha kalpa

A maha-kalpa (life of Brahma) lasts for 311.04trillion years:

= elapsed 18,001st kalpa + 18,000 kalpas + 18,000 pralayas

= elapsed 7th manvantara + 7 manvantara-sandhyas + 6 manvantaras + 36,000 kalpas/pralayas

= elapsed 28th chatur-yuga + 27 chatur-yugas + 7 manvantara-sandhyas + 6 manvantaras + 36,000 kalpas/pralayas

= chatur-yuga - Kali-yuga + elapsed Kali-yuga + 27 chatur-yugas + 7 manvantara-sandhyas + 6 manvantaras + 36,000 kalpas/pralayas

= (((4,320,000 - 432,000 + (+ 3102 - 1)) + 4,320,000 * 27) + 1,728,000 * 7 + 306,720,000 * 6) + 4,320,000,000 * 36,000

= years

≈ trillion years

= remaining 18,001st kalpa + 17,999 kalpas + 18,000 pralayas

= remaining 7th manvantara + 8 manvantara-sandhyas + 7 manvantaras + 35,999 kalpas/pralayas

= remaining 28th chatur-yuga + 43 chatur-yugas + 8 manvantara-sandhyas + 7 manvantaras + 35,999 kalpas/pralayas

= Kali-yuga - elapsed Kali-yuga + 43 chatur-yugas + 8 manvantara-sandhyas + 7 manvantaras + 35,999 kalpas/pralayas

= (((432,000 - (+ 3102 - 1)) + 4,320,000 * 43) + 1,728,000 * 8 + 306,720,000 * 7) + 4,320,000,000 * 35,999

= years

≈ trillion years

Hindu texts

Mahabharata

The Mahabharata (12.231.12–31) describes units of time from a wink of the eye (nimesha) up to the days (kalpa) and nights (pralaya) of Brahma.

Manusmriti

The Manusmriti (Laws of Manu; 1.64–80) describes units of time from a twinkling of the eye (nimesha) up to the days (kalpa) and nights (pralaya) of Brahma.[27] [28]

According to Patrick Olivelle, most scholars take the table of contents (1.111–118) to be an addition, but for him the account of time and cosmology (1.61–86) to the aforementioned (1.118) are out of place redactions. He feels the narrative should have ended when the initial command to "listen" (1.4) was repeated (1.60), then transition to "learn" (2.1).

Georg Bühler, whose translation has remained the standard for over a century according to Olivelle, translated 1.71 as 12,000 years in a four-aged period, same as Sir William Jones's translation, both based on Kulluka Bhatta's commentary. Medhatithi translated it as 12,000 four-aged periods in an age of the gods. Kulluka and Olivelle reject Medhatithi's interpretation based on 1.79 mentioning 12,000 without a qualifier ("etat" or "this") and must be assumed as years.[29]

Surya Siddhanta

The Surya Siddhanta (1.10–21) describes units of time from a respiration (prana) up to the 100-year lifespan of Brahma (maha-kalpa).

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Gupta . S. V. . 2010 . Ch. 1.2.4 Time Measurements . Hull . Robert . Osgood . Richard M. Jr. . Richard M. Osgood Jr. . Parisi . Jurgen . Warlimont . Hans . Units of Measurement: Past, Present and Future. International System of Units . https://books.google.com/books?id=pHiKycrLmEQC&pg=PA7 . Springer Series in Materials Science: 122 . . 3 . 9783642007378.
  2. Book: Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya . Dick Teresi . 174 . Simon & Schuster.
  3. Web site: Time – Vyasa Mahabharata. 2021-12-31. en-US.
  4. Book: Gupta. Ravi. The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition. Valpey. Kenneth. 2013-03-26. Columbia University Press. 978-0-231-14999-0. en.
  5. Web site: 2015-02-01. Concept and Measurement of Time in the Vedas. 2021-12-31. Sanskriti. en-US.
  6. Web site: Vallée. Guylaine. 2020-03-01. What's Your Vedic Astrological Sign?. 2020-07-29. Birla Vedic Center. en-US.
  7. Web site: Subramanian. Vijaya. Sidereal and Tropical Zodiac – Vijaya Jyoti. 2020-07-29. en.
  8. Web site: Ayanamshas in Sidereal Astrology. 2020-07-29. www.astro.com. en.
  9. Web site: Zodiac Sign Dates: What Are The Dates for Every Star Sign?. 2020-07-29. Astrostyle: Astrology and Daily, Weekly, Monthly Horoscopes by The AstroTwins. 28 September 2016 . en-US.
  10. Length of breath in Sukhasana of healthy person
  11. Web site: Vedic Time System - वेद Veda. veda.wikidot.com. 2019-12-04.
  12. Web site: Introduction to Calendars . 2024-08-13 . aa.usno.navy.mil.
  13. Book: Kumar, Ashwini . Vaastu: The Art And Science Of Living . 2005 . Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd . 81-207-2569-7 . 50.
  14. De . Subhadeep . 2022-06-01 . Sundial to the Atomic Clock . Resonance . en . 27 . 6 . 941–959 . 10.1007/s12045-022-1390-6 . 0973-712X.
  15. Book: Buddhike Sri Harsha . Indrasena . 2021 . 2020 . Resolving the Controversies of Astrology and Vedic Astronomy: Thinking Outside the Box . Revised . . 81–82 . 978-1-716-75246-9 . 6.2.2: For all human, divine, and Brahma scales, one year equals 360 'days' of respective scale..
  16. Book: Burgess . Ebenezer . 1860 . Ch. I, Of the Mean Motions of the Planets . Translation of the Sûrya-Siddhânta: A text-book of Hindu astronomy, with notes and an appendix . https://books.google.com/books?id=jpE7AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA10 . . 10–12 (1.21–24), 17.
  17. Book: Matchett . Freda . Yano . Michio . 2003 . Part II, Ch. 6: The Puranas / Part III, Ch. 18: Calendar, Astrology, and Astronomy . Flood . Gavin . Gavin Flood . The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism . https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C&q=yuga&pg=PA139 . . 139–140, 390 (Kali yuga epoch) . 0631215352.
  18. https://legendofbharatbarsha.home.blog/2019/12/07/detailed-history-of-time/ Bharatbarsha – A Living Legend
  19. Book: Godwin . Joscelyn . Joscelyn Godwin . 2011 . Atlantis and the Cycles of Time: Prophecies, Traditions, and Occult Revelations . . 9781594778575 . 300–301.
  20. Encyclopedia: Merriam-Webster . 1999 . Doniger . Wendy . Wendy Doniger . Hawley . John Stratton . Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions . registration . . . 445 (Hinduism), 1159 (Yuga) . 0877790442 .
    • HINDUISM: Myths of time and eternity: ... Each yuga is preceded by an intermediate "dawn" and "dusk." The Krita yuga lasts 4,000 god-years, with a dawn and dusk of 400 god-years each, or a total of 4,800 god-years; Treta a total of 3,600 god-years; Dvapara 2,400 god-years; and Kali (the current yuga) 1,200 god-years. A mahayuga thus lasts 12,000 god-years ... Since each god-year lasts 360 human years, a mahayuga is 4,320,000 years long in human time. Two thousand mahayugas form one kalpa (eon) [and pralaya], which is itself but one day in the life of Brahma, whose full life lasts 100 years; the present is the midpoint of his life. Each kalpa is followed by an equally long period of abeyance (pralaya), in which the universe is asleep. Seemingly the universe will come to an end at the end of Brahma's life, but Brahmas too are innumerable, and a new universe is reborn with each new Brahma.
      * YUGA: Each yuga is progressively shorter than the preceding one, corresponding to a decline in the moral and physical state of humanity. Four such yugas ... make up a mahayuga ("great yuga") ... The first yuga (Krita) was an age of perfection, lasting 1,728,000 years. The fourth and most degenerate yuga (Kali) began in 3102 BCE and will last 432,000 years. At the close of the Kali yuga, the world will be destroyed by fire and flood, to be re-created as the cycle resumes. In a partially competing vision of time, Vishnu's 10th and final Avatar, Kalki, is described as bringing the present cosmic cycle to a close by destroying the evil forces that rule the Kali yuga and ushering in an immediate return to the idyllic Krita yuga.
    .
  21. Book: Tracing The Way: Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions. A&C Black. 50. Hans Kng. 9780826494238. 31 October 2006.
  22. Web site: Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam (Bhāgavata Purāṇa) 3.11.19 . Bhaktivedanta Vedabase . 2020-07-10 .

    (19) The duration of the Satya millennium equals 4,800 years of the years of the demigods; the duration of the Tretā millennium equals 3,600 years of the demigods; the duration of the Dvāpara millennium equals 2,400 years; and that of the Kali millennium is 1,200 years of the demigods. PURPORT: As aforementioned, one year of the demigods is equal to 360 years of the human beings. The duration of the Satya-yuga is therefore 4,800 × 360, or 1,728,000 years. The duration of the Tretā-yuga is 3,600 × 360, or 1,296,000 years. The duration of the Dvāpara-yuga is 2,400 × 360, or 864,000 years. And the last, the Kali-yuga, is 1,200 × 360, or 432,000 years..
  23. Book: Krishnamurthy . V. . 2019 . Ch. 20: The Cosmic Flow of Time as per Scriptures . Meet the Ancient Scriptures of Hinduism . https://books.google.com/books?id=HF2NDwAAQBAJ&q=%227th+manvantara%22+%2228th%22&pg=PT407 . Notion Press . 9781684669387 . Each manvantara is preceded and followed by a period of 1,728,000 (= 4K) years when the entire earthly universe (bhu-loka) will submerge under water. The period of this deluge is known as manvantara-sandhya (sandhya meaning, twilight). ... According to the traditional time-keeping ... Thus in Brahma's calendar the present time may be coded as his 51st year - first month - first day - 7th manvantara - 28th maha-yuga - 4th yuga or kaliyuga..
  24. Encyclopedia: Doniger . Wendy . Wendy Doniger . Hawley . John Stratton . 1999 . Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions . registration . . . 691 (Manu) . 0877790442 . a day in the life of Brahma is divided into 14 periods called manvantaras ("Manu intervals"), each of which lasts for 306,720,000 years. In every second cycle [(new kalpa after pralaya)] the world is recreated, and a new Manu appears to become the father of the next human race. The present age is considered to be the seventh Manu cycle..
  25. Book: Penprase . Bryan E. . 2017 . The Power of Stars . 2nd . . 182 . 9783319525976.
  26. Book: Johnson, W.J.. A Dictionary of Hinduism. Oxford University Press. 2009. 978-0-19-861025-0. 165.
  27. Book: Jones . Sir William . William Jones (philologist) . 1807 . 1st ed. 1794 . The Laws of Menu, Son of Brahma - Chapter The First: On the Creation; with a Summary of the Contents . The Works of Sir William Jones in thirteen volumes. . https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.44659/page/n109/mode/1up . VII . 101–104.
  28. Book: Jha . Ganganath . Ganganath Jha . 1999 . 1st ed. 1920 . Discourse I - Origin of the Work—Creation of the World—Summary of Contents of the Book. . Manusmriti with the Commentary of Medhatithi in Ten Volumes . Wisdom Library . Adhyāya 1 . . 8120811550.
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