This article deals with the grammar of the Udmurt language.
Udmurt pronouns are inflected much in the same way that their referent nouns are. However, personal pronouns are only inflected in the grammatical cases and cannot be inflected in the locative cases.
Somewhat like in English, Udmurt personal pronouns are used to refer to human beings only. However, the third person singular can be referred to it. Udmurt personal pronouns only inflect in the grammatical cases and the allative case. The nominative case of personal pronouns are listed in the following table:
Udmurt reflexive pronouns only inflect in the grammatical cases and the allative case. The nominative case of reflexive pronouns are listed in the following table:
Udmurt interrogative pronouns inflect in all cases. However, the inanimate interrogative pronouns 'what' in the locative cases have the base form Udmurt: кыт-. The nominative case of interrogative pronouns are listed in the following table:
| Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| what | Udmurt: ма pronounced as //mɑ// | Udmurt: маос pronounced as //mɑos// | |
| who | Udmurt: кин pronounced as //kin// | Udmurt: кинъëс pronounced as //kinjos// |
The following table shows Udmurt interrogative pronouns in all the cases :
| Case | Udmurt: кин- pronounced as //kin// | English | Udmurt: ма-/Udmurt: кыт- pronounced as //mɑ/kɨt// | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | Udmurt: кин pronounced as //kin// | who | Udmurt: ма pronounced as //mɑ// | what | |
| Accusative | Udmurt: кинэ pronounced as //kine// | whom | Udmurt: мае pronounced as //mɑje// | what | |
| Genitive | Udmurt: кинлэн pronounced as //kinɫen// | whose | Udmurt: малэн pronounced as //mɑɫen// | of what | |
| Ablative | Udmurt: кинлэсь pronounced as //kinɫeɕ// | from whom | Udmurt: малэсь pronounced as //mɑɫeɕ// | from what | |
| Dative | Udmurt: кинлы pronounced as //kinɫɨ// | to whom | Udmurt: малы pronounced as //mɑɫɨ// | to what | |
| Instructive | Udmurt: кинэн pronounced as //kinen// | with whom | Udmurt: маин pronounced as //mɑin// | with what | |
| Abessive | Udmurt: кинтэк pronounced as //kintek// | without whom | Udmurt: матэк pronounced as //mɑtek// | without what | |
| Adverbial | Udmurt: кинъя pronounced as //kinjɑ/ | in whose way | Udmurt: мая pronounced as //mɑjɑ/ | in what way | |
| Inessive | – | – | Udmurt: кытын pronounced as //kɨtɨn// | where | |
| Illative | – | – | Udmurt: кытчы pronounced as //kɨt͡ːʃɨ// | to where | |
| Elative | – | – | Udmurt: кытысь pronounced as //kɨtɨɕ// | from where | |
| Egressive | – | – | Udmurt: кытысен pronounced as //kɨtɨɕen// | start from where | |
| Terminative | – | – | Udmurt: кытчыозь pronounced as //kɨt͡ːʃɨoʑ// | end up where | |
| Prolative | – | – | Udmurt: кытӥ pronounced as //kɨti// | along where | |
| Allative* | Udmurt: кинлань pronounced as //kinɫɑɲ// | towards whom | Udmurt: малань pronounced as //mɑɫɑɲ// | towards where |
Udmurt does not distinguish gender in nouns or even in personal pronouns: 'Udmurt: со' = 'he' or 'she' depending on the referent.
Udmurt has fifteen noun cases: eight grammatical cases and seven locative cases. Notice that the word in a given locative case modifies the verb, not a noun. The locative cases can only be used with inanimate references with the exception of the allative case. Alternative forms containing Udmurt: -ы- can only be used after the plural suffix (i.e. the illative singular Udmurt: гуртэ, but plural Udmurt: гуртъёс'''ы'''). The less common accusative suffix Udmurt: -ты is used after the plural suffix, in addition to more common Udmurt: -ыз.
| Udmurt cases | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Suffix | English prep. | Example | Translation | |
| Grammatical | |||||
| – | – | Udmurt: гурт pronounced as //gurt// | village | ||
| genitive | -Udmurt: лэн pronounced as //ɫen// | Udmurt: гуртлэн pronounced as //gurtɫen// | of a village / village's | ||
| -Udmurt: эз/-Udmurt: ез/-Udmurt: ты/-Udmurt: ыз pronounced as //ez/jez/tɨ/ɨz// | – | Udmurt: гуртэз pronounced as //gurtez// | village (as an object) | ||
| ablative | -Udmurt: лэсь pronounced as //ɫeɕ// | from | Udmurt: гуртлэсь pronounced as //gurtɫeɕ// | from a village | |
| dative | -Udmurt: лы pronounced as //ɫɨ// | to/for | Udmurt: гуртлы pronounced as //gurtɫɨ// | to a village | |
| instrumental | -Udmurt: эн/-Udmurt: ен/-Udmurt: ын pronounced as //en/jen/ɨn// | with/by means of | Udmurt: гуртэн pronounced as //gurten// | by means of a village | |
| abessive | -Udmurt: тэк pronounced as //tek// | without | Udmurt: гурттэк pronounced as //gurtːek// | without a village | |
| adverbial | -Udmurt: я pronounced as //jɑ// | in a way | Udmurt: гуртъя pronounced as //gurtjɑ// | in a village way | |
| Locative cases | |||||
| -Udmurt: ын pronounced as //ɨn// | in | Udmurt: гуртын pronounced as //gurtɨn// | in a village | ||
| -Udmurt: э/-Udmurt: е/-Udmurt: ы pronounced as //e/je/ɨ// | into | Udmurt: гуртэ pronounced as //gurte// | into a village (or house) | ||
| -Udmurt: ысь pronounced as //ɨɕ// | from | Udmurt: гуртысь pronounced as //gurtɨɕ// | from a village | ||
| -Udmurt: ысен pronounced as //ɨɕen// | starting from | Udmurt: гуртысен pronounced as //gurtɨɕen// | starting from a village | ||
| -Udmurt: озь pronounced as //oʑ// | end up | Udmurt: гуртозь pronounced as //gurtoʑ// | end up at a village | ||
| -Udmurt: этӥ/-Udmurt: етӥ/-Udmurt: ытӥ/-Udmurt: тӥ pronounced as //eti/jeti/ɨti/ti// | along | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ pronounced as //gurteti// | along a village | ||
| allative | -Udmurt: лань pronounced as //ɫɑɲ// | towards | Udmurt: гуртлань pronounced as //gurtɫɑɲ// | towards a village | |
*The allative case is commonly called "approximative" when talking about Udmurt and Komi.
Udmurt case endings affix directly to nouns quite regularly with the exception of a few lexemes of Uralic origin. These lexemes have stem changes when declining in the locative cases whose endings begin with a vowel:
| Examples of lexemes with varied stems | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lexeme | Stem | Inessive | English | Original stem form | Cognate example | |
| Udmurt: син pronounced as //ɕin// | Udmurt: синм- pronounced as //ɕinm// | Udmurt: синмын pronounced as //ɕinmɨn// | (in an) eye |
| Finnish: Finnish: silmä 'eye' | |
| Udmurt: ин pronounced as //in// | Udmurt: инм- pronounced as //inm// | Udmurt: инмын pronounced as //inmɨn// | (in the) sky | Finnish: Finnish: ilma 'air' | ||
| Udmurt: кус pronounced as //kus// | Udmurt: куск- pronounced as //kusk// | Udmurt: кускын pronounced as //kuskɨn// | (in the) hips |
| Erzya: Erzya: каске 'rump' | |
| Udmurt: нюлэс pronounced as //ɲuɫes// | Udmurt: нюлэск- pronounced as //ɲuɫesk// | Udmurt: нюлэскын pronounced as //ɲuɫeskɨn// | (in the) forest | |||
| Udmurt: кык pronounced as //kɨk// | Udmurt: кыкт- pronounced as //kɨkt// | Udmurt: кыктэтӥ pronounced as //kɨkteti// | two; second |
| Northern Sami: Northern Sami: guokte 'two' | |
The personal pronouns, however, have irregularities in comparison to the declension of other nouns:
| Udmurt personal pronoun declensions | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | 1st pers. sing. | 2nd pers. sing. | 3rd pers. sing. | 1st pers. pl | 2nd pers. pl. | 3rd pers pl. | |
| Udmurt: мон pronounced as //mon// | Udmurt: тон pronounced as //ton// | Udmurt: со pronounced as //so// | Udmurt: ми pronounced as //mi// | Udmurt: тӥ pronounced as //ti// | Udmurt: соос pronounced as //soːs// | ||
| Udmurt: мынам pronounced as //mɨnɑm// | Udmurt: тынад pronounced as //tɨnɑd// | Udmurt: солэн pronounced as //soɫen// | Udmurt: милям pronounced as //miʎɑm// | Udmurt: тӥляд pronounced as //tiʎɑd// | Udmurt: соослэн pronounced as //soːsɫen// | ||
| Udmurt: монэ pronounced as //mone// | Udmurt: тонэ pronounced as //tone// | Udmurt: сое pronounced as //soje// | Udmurt: милемыз ~ Udmurt: милемды pronounced as //miʎemɨz/ ~ /miʎemdɨ// | Udmurt: тӥледыз ~ Udmurt: тӥледды pronounced as //tiʎedɨz// ~ pronounced as //tiʎeddɨ// | Udmurt: соосыз ~ соосты pronounced as //soːsɨz// ~ pronounced as //soːstɨ// | ||
| Udmurt: мынэсьтым pronounced as //mɨneɕtɨm// | Udmurt: тынэсьтыд pronounced as //tɨneɕtɨd// | Udmurt: солэсь pronounced as //soɫeɕ// | Udmurt: милесьтым pronounced as //miʎeɕtɨm// | Udmurt: тӥлесьтыд pronounced as //tiʎeɕtɨd// | Udmurt: соослэсь pronounced as //soːsɫeɕ// | ||
| Udmurt: мыным pronounced as //mɨnɨm// | Udmurt: тыныд pronounced as //tɨnɨd// | Udmurt: солы pronounced as //soɫɨ// | Udmurt: милем(лы) pronounced as //miʎem(ɫɨ)// | Udmurt: тӥлед(лы) pronounced as //tiʎed(ɫɨ)// | Udmurt: соослы pronounced as //soːsɫɨ// | ||
| Udmurt: монэн ~ Udmurt: монэным pronounced as //monen/ ~ /monenɨm// | Udmurt: тонэн ~ Udmurt: тонэныд pronounced as //tonen/ ~ /tonenɨd// | Udmurt: соин pronounced as //soin// | Udmurt: милемын ~ Udmurt: миленымы pronounced as //miʎemɨn/ ~ /miʎenɨmɨ// | Udmurt: тӥледын ~ Udmurt: тӥленыды pronounced as //tiʎedɨn/ ~ /tiʎenɨdɨ// | Udmurt: соосын pronounced as //soːsɨn// | ||
| Udmurt: монтэк pronounced as //montek// | Udmurt: тонтэк pronounced as //tontek// | Udmurt: сотэк pronounced as //sotek// | Udmurt: митэк pronounced as //mitek// | Udmurt: тӥтэк pronounced as //titek// | Udmurt: соостэк pronounced as //soːstek// | ||
| Udmurt: монъя pronounced as //monjɑ// | Udmurt: тонъя pronounced as //tonjɑ// | Udmurt: соя pronounced as //sojɑ// | Udmurt: мия pronounced as //mijɑ// | Udmurt: тӥя pronounced as //tijɑ// | Udmurt: соосъя pronounced as //soːsjɑ// | ||
| allative | Udmurt: монлань pronounced as //monɫɑɲ// | Udmurt: тонлань pronounced as //tonlɑɲ// | Udmurt: солань pronounced as //soɫɑɲ// | Udmurt: милань pronounced as //miɫɑɲ// | Udmurt: тӥлань pronounced as //tiɫɑɲ// | Udmurt: соослань pronounced as //soːsɫɑɲ// | |
There are two types of nominal plurals in Udmurt. One is the plural for nouns -Udmurt: ос (after vowels)/-Udmurt: ëс (after consonants)/-Udmurt: ъёс (after certain consonants to avoid palatalization) and the other is the plural for adjectives -Udmurt: эсь/-Udmurt: есь.
The noun is always in plural. In attributive plural phrases, the adjective is not required to be in the plural:
The plural marker always comes before other endings (i.e. cases and possessive suffixes) in the morphological structure of plural nominal.
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: ныл'''ъëс'''лы | to the girls | |
| Udmurt: гурт'''ъëс'''азы | to/in their villages |
As in Hungarian, if the subject is plural, the adjective is always plural when it functions as the sentence's predicative:
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: нылъëс ''чебер'''есь'''''|italic=unset | the girls are beautiful | |
| Udmurt: толъёс ''куз'''есь'''''|italic=unset | the winters are cold |
Nouns are ordinarily in the singular when following cardinal numbers. However, a living being as the sentence's subject may be in the plural. In this case, the predicate verb must be in congruency with the subject.
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: Та гуртын ''витьтон куать корка''|italic=unset | There are fifty-six houses in this village | |
| Udmurt: Аудиториын ''дас студент'' пуке ~ Аудиториын ''дас студент'''ъëс''''' пук'''о'''|italic=unset | There are ten students sitting in the lecture hall |
Udmurt possessive suffixes are added to the end of nouns either before or after a case ending. The possessive suffixes vary in the nominative and accusative cases and with case endings. The consonant of the second and third person plural depends on if the last phoneme of the word is voiced or unvoiced.
| Suffix ending | Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|---|
| -Udmurt: е/-Udmurt: э | Udmurt: эш'''е''' | my friend | |
| -Udmurt: ед/-Udmurt: эд | Udmurt: эш'''ед''' | your friend | |
| -Udmurt: ез/-Udmurt: эз | Udmurt: эш'''ез''' | his/her friend | |
| -Udmurt: мы | Udmurt: эш'''мы''' | our friend | |
| -Udmurt: ды/-Udmurt: ты | Udmurt: эш'''ты''' | your (pl) friend | |
| -Udmurt: зы/-Udmurt: сы | Udmurt: эш'''сы''' | their friend |
Certain lexemes of Finno-Ugric origin (especially those ending with a vowel or meaning an inalienable object) contain the vowel -Udmurt: ы- in the first, second and third person singular nominative possessive suffixes:
| Suffix ending | Udmurt | Finnish equivalent | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| -Udmurt: ы | Udmurt: ки'''ы''' | Finnish: käteni | my hand | |
| -Udmurt: ыд | Udmurt: ки'''ыд''' | Finnish: kätesi | your hand | |
| -Udmurt: ыз | Udmurt: ки'''ыз''' | Finnish: kätensä | his/her hand |
Accusative possessive suffixes are shown in the following table. The consonant of the second and third person singular and plural depends on if the last phoneme of the word is voiced or unvoiced.
| Accusative possessive suffix | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Suffix ending | Udmurt | English | |
| -Udmurt: ме | Udmurt: эш'''ме''' | my friend | |
| -Udmurt: тэ/-Udmurt: дэ | Udmurt: эш'''тэ''' | your friend | |
| -Udmurt: сэ/-Udmurt: зэ | Udmurt: эш'''сэ''' | his/her friend | |
| -Udmurt: мес | Udmurt: эш'''мес''' | our friend | |
| -Udmurt: дэс/-Udmurt: тэс | Udmurt: эш'''тэс''' | your (pl) friend | |
| -Udmurt: зэс/-Udmurt: сэс | Udmurt: эш'''сэс''' | their friend | |
The morphological placement of possessive suffixes with other endings depends on the case. Possessive suffixes are the same as nominative suffixes after which the genitive, ablative, dative, abessive, adverbial and allative cases agglutinates.
| Possessive suffixes with case endings | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Udmurt (first person singular) | English | |
| nominative | Udmurt: гуртэ | my village | |
| genitive | Udmurt: гурт'''э'''лэн | my village's/of my village | |
| ablative | Udmurt: гурт'''э'''лэсь | from my village | |
| dative | Udmurt: гурт'''э'''лы | for my village | |
| abessive | Udmurt: гурт'''э'''тэк | without my village | |
| adverbial | Udmurt: гурт'''э'''я | across my village | |
| allative | Udmurt: гурт'''э'''лань | towards my village | |
The possessive suffix follows the instrumental, inessive, illative, elative egressive, terminative and prolative cases and the vowel reduces to Udmurt: ы in the singular persons. An Udmurt: м, an old Uralic first person singular marker, appears in the first person singular. When adding a possessive suffix, the inessive and illative forms change to Udmurt: -а- and the elative form changes to -Udmurt: ысьт-. The Udmurt: ы does not appear in the inessive, illative, terminative and prolative cases where the case ends with a vowel.
| Possessive suffixes with case endings | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| person | instrumental | inessive | illative | elative | egressive | terminative | prolative | |
| Singular | ||||||||
| first | Udmurt: гуртэным | Udmurt: гурта'''м''' | Udmurt: гурта'''м''' | Udmurt: гуртысьт'''ым''' | Udmurt: гуртысен'''ым''' | Udmurt: гуртозя'''м''' | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ'''м''' | |
| second | Udmurt: гуртэн'''ыд''' | Udmurt: гурта'''д''' | Udmurt: гурта'''д''' | Udmurt: гуртысьт'''ыд''' | Udmurt: гуртысен'''ыд''' | Udmurt: гуртозя'''д''' | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ'''д''' | |
| third | Udmurt: гуртэн'''ыз''' | Udmurt: гурта'''з''' | Udmurt: гурта'''з''' | Udmurt: гуртысьт'''ыз''' | Udmurt: гуртысен'''ыз''' | Udmurt: гуртозя'''з''' | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ'''з''' | |
| Plural | ||||||||
| first | Udmurt: гуртэн'''ымы''' | Udmurt: гурта'''мы''' | Udmurt: гурта'''мы''' | Udmurt: гуртысьт'''ымы''' | Udmurt: гуртысен'''ымы''' | Udmurt: гуртозя'''мы''' | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ'''мы''' | |
| second | Udmurt: гуртэн'''ыды''' | Udmurt: гурта'''ды''' | Udmurt: гурта'''ды''' | Udmurt: гуртысьт'''ыды''' | Udmurt: гуртысен'''ыды''' | Udmurt: гуртозя'''ды''' | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ'''ды''' | |
| third | Udmurt: гуртэн'''ызы''' | Udmurt: гурта'''зы''' | Udmurt: гурта'''зы''' | Udmurt: гуртысьт'''ызы''' | Udmurt: гуртысен'''ызы''' | Udmurt: гуртозя'''зы''' | Udmurt: гуртэтӥ'''зы''' | |
As in the singular, possessive suffixes precede the genitive, ablative, dative, abessive, adverbial and allative cases. However, the vowel of the singular persons reduce to Udmurt: ы:
| Possessive suffixes with case endings | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Udmurt (first person singular) | English | |
| nominative | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы''' | my villages | |
| genitive | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы'''лэн | my villages'/of my villages | |
| ablative | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы'''лэсь | from my villages | |
| dative | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы'''лы | for my villages | |
| abessive | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы'''тэк | without my villages | |
| adverbial | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы'''я | across my villages | |
| allative | Udmurt: гуртъëс'''ы'''лань | towards my villages | |
As in the singular, possessive suffixes follow the instrumental, inessive, illative, elative, egressive, terminative and prolative cases. The suffix forms follow the same structure as in the singular. The same exceptions appear in the plural as in the singular with the added exception of the instrumental Udmurt: э/е reducing to Udmurt: ы and the prolative Udmurt: э/е not used.
| Possessive suffixes with case endings | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Udmurt (first person singular) | English | |
| instrumental | Udmurt: гуртъëсын'''ым''' | by means of my villages | |
| inessive | Udmurt: гуртъëса'''м''' | in my villages | |
| illative | Udmurt: гуртъëса'''м''' | to my villages | |
| elative | Udmurt: гуртъëсысьты'''м''' | from my villages | |
| egressive | Udmurt: гуртъëсысен'''ым''' | starting from my villages | |
| terminative | Udmurt: гуртъëсозя'''м''' | ending up at my villages | |
| prolative | Udmurt: гуртъëстӥ'''м''' | along my villages | |
Some words can be used as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs without a change in form. For example, Udmurt: '''чылкыт''' pronounced as //t͡ʃɨɫkɨt// means "cleanliness", "clean", and "clearly".
The third person singular possessive suffix also acts as a definite article: Udmurt: удмурт кыл(ыз) чебер pronounced as //udmurt kɨɫ(ɨz) t͡ʃeber// ("the Udmurt language is nice" – literally "Udmurt language's nice").
There is no congruency between adjectives and nouns in neutral Udmurt noun phrases, i.e. there is no adjective declension as in the inessive noun phrase Udmurt: бадӟым гурт'''ын''', 'in a large/big village' (cf. Finnish inessive phrase Finnish: iso'''ssa''' kylä'''ssä''' 'in a large/big village', in which Finnish: iso 'big/large' is inflected according to the head noun). However, as stated earlier, Udmurt adjectives in neutral attributive (non-predicative) noun phrases may have a plural marker when the noun is pluralised.
Udmurt does have an emphasising determinative suffix. Its function is to place emphasis on the features of the referent, defining and separating it from a group of other similar referents. The third person singular possessive suffix Udmurt: -ез/-эз and Udmurt: -из and plural Udmurt: -ыз acts as the determinative suffix. The determinative adjective conjugates as in the third person singular or plural and the noun conjugates without any other marker.
| Determinative suffix | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | neutral | English | determinative | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| nominative | Udmurt: бадӟым гурт | (a) big village | Udmurt: бадӟым'''ез''' гурт | (specifically) a big village | |
| inessive | Udmurt: бадӟым гуртын | in a big village | Udmurt: бадӟым'''аз''' гуртын | in the (specifically) big village | |
| illative | Udmurt: бадӟым гуртэ | to a big village | Udmurt: бадӟым'''аз''' гуртэ | to the (specifically) big village | |
| elative | Udmurt: бадӟым гуртысь | from a big village | Udmurt: бадӟым'''ысьтыз''' гуртысь | from the (specifically) big village | |
| Plural | |||||
| nominative | Udmurt: бадӟым(есь) гуртъëс | (the) big villages | Udmurt: бадӟым'''ъëсыз''' гуртъëс | the (specifically) big villages | |
| inessive | Udmurt: бадӟым(есь) гуртъëсын | in the big villages | Udmurt: бадӟым'''ъëсаз''' гуртъëсын | in the (specifically) big villages | |
| illative | Udmurt: бадӟым(есь) гуртъëсы | to the big villages | Udmurt: бадӟым'''ъëсаз''' гуртъëсы | to the (specifically) big villages | |
| elative | Udmurt: бадӟым(есь) гуртъëсысь | from a big village | Udmurt: адӟым'''ъëсысьтыз''' гуртъëсысьб | from the (specifically) big village | |
Comparative is used when two referents are compared to each other but the subject of comparison does not necessarily need to be expressed.
The comparative suffix in Udmurt is Udmurt: -гес. The subject of comparison can be expressed either in the ablative case or with the postposition Udmurt: сярысь structure. If the subject of comparison it is shown the comparative suffix can be left out.
There is no superlative suffix in Udmurt. Superlative is expressed with the Russian particle Udmurt: самой or indefinitive expressions Udmurt: ваньмызлэсь, Udmurt: котькинлэсь or Udmurt: котьмалэсь.
| Superlative | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt | English | ||
| Udmurt: самой ~ ваньмызлэсь ~ котькинлэсь ~ котьмалэсь бадӟым | biggest (of them all) | ||
| Udmurt: самой ~ ваньмызлэсь ~ котькинлэсь ~ котьмалэсь выль | newest (of them all) | ||
| Udmurt: самой ~ ваньмызлэсь ~ котькинлэсь ~ котьмалэсь дун | cleanest (of them all) | ||
Udmurt makes use of postpositions rather than prepositions. A large percentage of the stems of Udmurt postpositions have a locative meaning and can conjugate in the local cases. For example, Udmurt: выл means 'top' and also 'surface' and can inflect in all the locative cases: (inessive) Udmurt: вылын, (elative) Udmurt: вылысь, (illative) Udmurt: вылэ, (prolative) Udmurt: вылтӥ, (egressive) Udmurt: вылысен, (terminative) Udmurt: вылозь and (allative) Udmurt: выллань.
However less than the seven locative cases are included in paradigm inflection of many of the postpositions. The paradigm usually consists of the inessive, elative and illative cases. Like nominals of foreign Uralic origin, some postpositions have a consonant in their stem. such as Udmurt: вис(к-), 'between'.
Some common postpositions are:
| Postpositions | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Stem | Example (inessive) | English | |
| Udmurt: азь | Udmurt: азь'''ын''' | in front of | |
| Udmurt: выл | Udmurt: выл'''ын''' | on top of | |
| Udmurt: дор | Udmurt: дор'''ын''' | next to, at | |
| Udmurt: бӧрсьы | Udmurt: бӧрсьы'''ын''' | in back of/behind | |
| Udmurt: пум | Udmurt: пум'''ын''' | at the end of | |
| Udmurt: ул | Udmurt: ул'''ын''' | under | |
The illative case can vary between Udmurt: -э/-е and Udmurt: -ы. The illative form of the postposition Udmurt: пал 'side' is Udmurt: пала 'to the side of'.
| Postpositions | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Stem | Example (illative) | English | |
| Udmurt: -э/-е | |||
| Udmurt: азь | Udmurt: аз'''е''' | to the front of | |
| Udmurt: выл | Udmurt: выл'''э''' | to the top of | |
| Udmurt: пум | Udmurt: пум'''е''' | to the end of | |
| Udmurt: ул | Udmurt: улы'''э''' | under | |
| Udmurt: -ы | |||
| Udmurt: дор | Udmurt: дор'''ы''' | next to, at | |
| Udmurt: шор | Udmurt: шор'''ы''' | to the centre of | |
| Udmurt: сьӧр | Udmurt: сьӧр'''ы''' | to the behind of | |
| Udmurt: вис(к-) | Udmurt: виск'''ы''' | between | |
There is also a small group of non-inflecting postpositions in addition to those inflecting in the locative cases (cf. Finnish Finnish: kanssa "with (a person)" that always takes the genitive case: Udmurt: ystävän kanssa "with a friend"). A few examples of these are:
| Postposition | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: артэ | next to | |
| Udmurt: бере | after | |
| Udmurt: быдэ | all, each | |
| Udmurt: валче | together; because of, due to | |
| Udmurt: дыръя | during | |
| Udmurt: кузя | along | |
| Udmurt: сямен | in the way of/ -wise | |
| Udmurt: сярысь | about | |
| Udmurt: ӵоже | within | |
| Udmurt: ӵош | together |
Most of the nouns in Udmurt postposition phrases are inflected in the nominative but there are a few postpositions that require the noun to be in the dative, ablative or instrumental cases:
| Example | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ||
| Udmurt: ӝок вылын | on top of a/the table | |
| Udmurt: писпу сьӧрысь | from behind a/the tree | |
| Udmurt: анай сярысь | about (a) mother | |
| Udmurt: университет бере | after university | |
| Udmurt: тон понна | because of you | |
| Dative | ||
| Udmurt: ар'''лы''' быдэ | every year | |
| Udmurt: тӧл'''лы''' пумит | against the wind | |
| Ablative | ||
| Udmurt: та'''лэсь''' азьло | before this | |
| Instrumental | ||
| Udmurt: ана'''ен''' ӵош | with mother | |
| Udmurt: со'''ин''' валче | because of it | |
| Udmurt: мон'''эн''' артэ | next to me | |
Udmurt verbs are divided into two groups or two conjugations, both having the infinitive marker Udmurt: -ны. The conjugation I type verb is structured with Udmurt: ы as in Udmurt: мын'''ыны''', 'to go'. The conjugation II type verb features an Udmurt: -а- in the infinitive as in Udmurt: уж'''аны''', 'to work'. The conjugation I verb can also have two stems, a full stem as in Udmurt: мыны- and a short stem as in Udmurt: мын-.
There are three verbal moods in Udmurt: indicative, conditional and imperative. There is also an optative mood used in certain dialects. The indicative mood has four tenses: present, future, and two past tenses. In addition there are four past tense structures which include auxiliary verbs. Verbs are negated by use of an auxiliary negative verb that conjugates with personal endings. Separate personal pronouns are not required in verb phrases.
The basic verbal personal markers in Udmurt are (with some exceptions):
| Personal endings of verbs | ||
|---|---|---|
| Person | Ending | |
| Singular | ||
| 1st | -Ø | |
| 2nd | -Udmurt: д | |
| 3rd | -Udmurt: з | |
| Plural | ||
| 1st | -Udmurt: мы | |
| 2nd | -Udmurt: ды | |
| 3rd | -Udmurt: зы | |
Present tense in Udmurt, in all but the third person, is marked with Udmurt: -(ӥ)сько-/-(и)сько-. Third person singular is marked with Udmurt: -э/-е (conjugation I) or unmarked (conjugation II) and third person plural is marked with Udmurt: -о (conjugation I) or Udmurt: -ло (conjugation II).
| Present tense | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥсько''' | I know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''сько''' | I sing/I am singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськод''' | you know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськод''' | you sing/you are singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''э''' | he/she knows | Udmurt: кырӟа | he/she sings / he/she is singing | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськомы''' | we know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськомы''' | we sing/we are singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськоды''' | you know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськоды''' | you sing/you are singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''о''' | they know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ло''' | they sing/they are singing | |
The negative indicative present is formed by the auxiliary Udmurt: у- negative verb and the marker Udmurt: -(ӥ)ськы/-(и)ськы in the first and second person singular or Udmurt: -(ӥ)ське/-(и)ське in the first and second plural of the main verb. The third person singular main verb is either marked by the full stem (conjugation I) or unmarked (conjugation II). The third person plural is marked with Udmurt: -о (conjugation I) or Udmurt: -ло (conjugation II).
The negative verb conjugates with the ending Udmurt: -г in first and third person singular and third person plural. Second person singular and plural both conjugate with the ending Udmurt: -д and first person plural with Udmurt: -м.
| Present tense negative | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: '''уг''' тод'''ӥськы''' | I do not know | Udmurt: '''уг''' кырӟа'''ськы''' | I do not sing/I am not singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: '''уд''' тод'''ӥськы''' | you do not know | Udmurt: '''уд''' кырӟа'''ськы''' | you do not sing/you are not singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: '''уг''' тоды | he/she does not know | Udmurt: '''уг''' кырӟа | he/she does not sing / he/she is not singing | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: '''ум''' тод'''ӥське''' | we do not know | Udmurt: '''ум''' кырӟа'''ське''' | we do not sing/we are not singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: '''уд''' тод'''ӥське''' | you do notknow | Udmurt: '''уд''' кырӟа'''ське''' | you do not sing/you are not singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: '''уг''' тод'''о''' | they do not know | Udmurt: '''уг''' кырӟа'''ло''' | they do not sing/they are not singing | |
The future tense in Udmurt is marked with Udmurt: -о- in conjugation I verbs and Udmurt: -ло- in conjugation II verbs.
| Future tense | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''о''' | I will know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ло''' | I will sing/I will be singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''од''' | you will know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''лод''' | you will sing/you will be singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''оз''' | he/she will know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''лоз''' | he/she will sing / he/she will be singing | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''омы''' | we will know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ломы''' | we will sing/we will be singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''оды''' | you will know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''лоды''' | you will sing/you will be singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''озы''' | they will know | Udmurt: кырӟа'''лозы''' | they will sing/they will be singing | |
The negative indicative future is formed by the auxiliary Udmurt: у- negative verb and the stem of the main verb in singular persons. The plural persons are marked either with Udmurt: -э/-е (conjugation I) or Udmurt: -лэ (conjugation II)
The negative verb conjugates with the ending Udmurt: -г in first person singular. Third person singular and third person plural have the ending Udmurt: -з and the remaining are as in present negative.
| Future tense negative | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: '''уг''' тод(ы) | I will not know | Udmurt: '''уг''' кырӟа | I will not sing/I will not be singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: '''уд''' тод(ы) | you will not know | Udmurt: '''уд''' кырӟа | you will not sing/you will not be singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: '''уз''' тод(ы) | he/she will not know | Udmurt: '''уз''' кырӟа | he/she will not sing / he/she will not be singing | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: '''ум''' тод'''э''' | we will not know | Udmurt: '''ум''' кырӟа'''лэ''' | we will not sing/we will not be singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: '''уд''' тод'''э''' | you will not know | Udmurt: '''уд''' кырӟа'''лэ''' | you will not sing/you will not be singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: '''уз''' тод'''э''' | they will not know | Udmurt: '''уз''' кырӟа'''лэ''' | they will not sing/they will not be singing | |
The conventionally used designations preterite and perfect are used with denotations which are divergent from their usual meanings in the grammar of other languages.
The first preterite can be compared with the simple past in English. Preterite I is marked with Udmurt: ӥ/и in conjugation I. There is no past tense marker in conjugation II verbs with the exception of Udmurt: й in the first person singular.
| Preterite I | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥ''' | I knew | Udmurt: кырӟа'''й''' | I sang | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥд''' | you knew | Udmurt: кырӟа'''д''' | you sang | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥз''' | he/she knew | Udmurt: кырӟа'''з''' | he/she sang | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥм(ы)''' | we knew | Udmurt: кырӟа'''м(ы)''' | we sang | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥды''' | you knew | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ды''' | you sang | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥзы''' | they knew | Udmurt: кырӟа'''зы''' | they sang | |
The negative preterite I is formed by the auxiliary Udmurt: ӧ- negative verb and the stem of the main verb in singular persons. The plural persons are marked either with Udmurt: -э/-е (conjugation I) or Udmurt: -лэ (conjugation II)
The negative verb conjugates with the ending Udmurt: -й in first person singular. Third person singular and third person plural have the ending Udmurt: -з and the remaining are as in present negative.
| Preterite I negative | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: '''ӧй''' тоды | I did not know | Udmurt: '''ӧй''' кырӟа | I did not sing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: '''ӧд''' тоды | you did not know | Udmurt: '''ӧд''' кырӟа | you did not sing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: '''ӧз''' тоды | he/she did not know | Udmurt: '''ӧз''' кырӟа | he/she did not sing | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: '''ӧм''' тод'''э''' | we did not know | Udmurt: '''ӧм''' кырӟа'''лэ''' | we did not sing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: '''ӧд''' тод'''э''' | you did not know | Udmurt: '''ӧд''' кырӟа'''лэ''' | you did not sing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: '''ӧз''' тод'''э''' | they did not know | Udmurt: '''ӧз''' кырӟа'''лэ''' | they did not sing | |
The second preterite is a past tense with an evidentiality distinction. It can be compared to the English perfect in which the speaker did not personally observe the past event. The preterite II is marked with Udmurt: (э)м/(е)м, which is historically related to the third infinitive in Finnish.
In addition to the normal personal endings, the present indicative marker Udmurt: -(ӥ)ськ-/-(и)ськ- is featured in first persons and a frequentive verbal marker Udmurt: -лля- is present in the second and third person plural. There is no personal ending in the third person singular and sometimes featured in the third person plural.
| Preterite II | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськем''' | I have evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськем''' | I have evidently sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''эмед''' | you have evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''мед''' | you have evidently sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''эм''' | he/she has evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''м''' | he/she has evidently sung | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськеммы''' | we have evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськемм(ы)''' | we have evidently sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥллямды''' | you have evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ллямды''' | you have evidently sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥллям(зы)''' | they have evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ллям(зы)''' | they evidently sung | |
The negative preterite II is formed either by including the auxiliary copular negative verb Udmurt: ӧвӧл 'is not' or with the negation marker Udmurt: -мтэ-.
| Preterite II negative | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськымтэе''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' тодӥськем | I have evidently not known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськымтэе''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' кырӟаськем | I have evidently not sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тоды'''мтэед''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' тодэмед | you have evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''мтэед''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' кырӟамед | you have evidently not sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тоды'''мтэ''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' тодэм | he/she has evidently known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''мтэ''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' кырӟам | he/she has evidently not sung | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тод'''ӥськымтэмы''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' тодӥськеммы | we have evidently not known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ськымтэмы''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' кырӟаськемм(ы) | we have evidently not sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥллямтэды''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' тодӥллямды | you have evidently not known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ллямтэды''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' кырӟаллямды | you have evidently not sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тод'''ӥллямтэ''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' тодӥллям(зы) | they have evidently not known | Udmurt: кырӟа'''ллямтэ''' ~ '''ӧвӧл''' кырӟаллям(зы) | they evidently not sung | |
There are four past tenses in Udmurt which use a preterite form of the main verb and a preterite form of the auxiliary verb 'to be'.
The Udmurt pluperfect makes use of the preterite I main verb and the auxiliary Udmurt: вал, 'was' in third person singular, also in simple past. The pluperfect I tense expresses a process of action that has happened in the (distant) past.
| Pluperfect I | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тодӥ вал | I had known | Udmurt: кырӟай вал | I had sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тодӥд вал | you had known | Udmurt: кырӟад вал | you had sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тодӥз вал | he/she had known | Udmurt: кырӟаз вал | he/she had sung | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тодӥм(ы) вал | we had known | Udmurt: кырӟам(ы) вал | we had sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тодӥды вал | you had known | Udmurt: кырӟады вал | you had sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тодӥзы вал | they had known | Udmurt: кырӟазы вал | they had sung | |
The negative Pluperfect I is formed by the negative preterite I negative plus the auxiliary Udmurt: вал.
| Pluperfect I negative | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: тодыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: кырӟаны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: ӧй тоды вал | I had not known | Udmurt: ӧй кырӟа вал | I had not sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: ӧд тоды вал | you had not known | Udmurt: ӧд кырӟа вал | you had not sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: ӧз тоды вал | he/she had not known | Udmurt: ӧз кырӟа вал | he/she had not sung | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: ӧм тодэ вал | we had not known | Udmurt: ӧм кырӟалэ вал | we had not sung | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: ӧд тодэ вал | you had not known | Udmurt: ӧд кырӟалэ вал | you had not sung | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: ӧз тодэ вал | they had not known | Udmurt: ӧз кырӟалэ вал | they had not sung | |
There are two structures of the pluperfect II tense. One uses the preterite II third person singular form of the main verb inflected with a personal possessive suffix and the auxiliary Udmurt: вал. The other is the preterite II of the main verb (with normal personal inflection) and the preterite I form of the 'to' be verb Udmurt: вылэм. The pluperfect II tense expresses the result of an action that has been completed, but no one had seen.
| Pluperfect II (Udmurt: тодыны) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Pluperfect II a | Pluperfect II b | English | |
| Singular | ||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тодэме вал | Udmurt: тодӥськем вылэм | I had evidently known | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тодэмед вал | Udmurt: тодэмед вылэм | you had evidently known | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тодэм вал | Udmurt: тодэм вылэм | he/she had evidently known | |
| Plural | ||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тодэммы вал | Udmurt: тодӥськеммы вылэм | we had evidently known | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тодэмды вал | Udmurt: тодӥллямды вылэм | you had evidently known | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тодэмзы вал | Udmurt: тодӥллям(зы) вылэм | they had evidently known | |
The negative pluperfect II is formed either by with the preterite II third person singular of the main verb in the negative (marked with Udmurt: -мтэ-) with a personal possessive suffix and the auxiliary verb Udmurt: вал (pluperfect II a) or with the negative preterite II of the main verb marked with Udmurt: -мтэ- with the preterite II auxiliary verb Udmurt: вылэм.
| Preterite II negative (Udmurt: тодыны) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Pluperfect II a | Pluperfect II b | English | |
| Singular | ||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тодымтэе вал | Udmurt: тодӥськымтэе вылэм | I had evidently not known | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тодымтэед вал | Udmurt: тодымтэед вылэм | you had evidently known | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тодымтэ вал | Udmurt: тодымтэ вылэм | he/she had evidently known | |
| Plural | ||||
| 1st | Udmurt: тодымтэмы вал | Udmurt: тодӥськымтэмы вылэм | we had evidently not known | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: тодымтэды вал | Udmurt: тодӥллямтэды вылэм | you had evidently not known | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: тодымтэзы вал | Udmurt: тодӥллямтэ вылэм | they had evidently not known | |
The durative preterite in Udmurt can be compared to the past progressive in English "was doing". Its function can be described as expressing a process in the past. The structure is the present tense of the main verb with either preterite of the auxiliary verb. The structure of the negative durative preterite is the negative present tense of the main verb with either preterite of the auxiliary verb.
| Durative preterite (Udmurt: кырӟаны) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Affirmative | English | Negative | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: кырӟасько вал/вылэм | I was singing | Udmurt: уг кырӟаськы вал/вылэм | I was not singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: кырӟаськод вал/вылэм | you were singing | Udmurt: уд кырӟаськы вал/вылэм | you were not singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: кырӟа вал/вылэм | he/she was singing | Udmurt: уг кырӟа вал/вылэм | he/she was not singing | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: кырӟаськомы вал/вылэм | we were singing | Udmurt: ум кырӟаське вал/вылэм | we were not singing | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: кырӟаськоды вал/вылэм | you were singing | Udmurt: уд кырӟаське вал/вылэм | you were not singing | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: кырӟало вал/вылэм | they were singing | Udmurt: уг кырӟало вал/вылэм | they were not singing | |
The frequentative preterite in Udmurt expresses a repeated action in the past. The structure is the future tense of the main verb with either preterite of the auxiliary verb. The structure of the negative frequentative preterite is the negative future tense of the main verb with either preterite of the auxiliary verb.
| Frequentative preterite (Udmurt: кырӟаны) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Affirmative | English | Negative | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: кырӟало вал/вылэм | I sang (always) | Udmurt: уг кырӟа вал/вылэм | I did not sing (always) | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: кырӟалод вал/вылэм | you sang (always) | Udmurt: уд кырӟа вал/вылэм | you did not sing (always) | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: кырӟлоз вал/вылэм | he/she sang (always) | Udmurt: уз кырӟа вал/вылэм | he/she did not sing (always) | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: кырӟаломы вал/вылэм | we sang (always) | Udmurt: ум кырӟалэ вал/вылэм | we did not sing (always) | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: кырӟалоды вал/вылэм | you sang (always) | Udmurt: уд кырӟалэ вал/вылэм | you did not sing (always) | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: кырӟалозы вал/вылэм | they sang (always) | Udmurt: уз кырӟалэ вал/вылэм | they did not sing (always) | |
Udmurt does not have a separate affix to express a passive voice. The plural third person of the verb is used as a personal form to express an unknown, non-determinative actor.
| Passive voice | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3rd pers. pl | English | Passive voice | English | |
| Udmurt: Соос ужало | They are working | Udmurt: Татын ужало | (People) are working here | |
| Udmurt: Соос удмурт сямен верасько | They speak Udmurt | Udmurt: Татын удмурт сямен верасько | Udmurt is spoken here | |
| Udmurt: Соос ӟуч сямен уг верасько | They do not speak Russian | Udmurt: Татын ӟуч сямен уг верасько | Russian is not spoken here | |
The conditional mood expresses an unrealistic action which the speaker considers to be supposed, possible or hopeful. The conditional marker is Udmurt: -сал and is attached to the stem of the verb (i.e. full stem of conjugation I verbs) along with personal endings. The third person singular, however, can function without a personal ending. The first person singular preterite I negative verb Udmurt: ӧй is used in the negative conditional.
| Conditional (Udmurt: карыны) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Affirmative | English | Negative | English | |
| Singular | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: кары'''сал''' | I would do | Udmurt: ӧй карысал | I would not do | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: кары'''салыд''' | you would do | Udmurt: ӧй карысалыд | you would not do | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: кары'''сал(ыз)''' | he/she would do | Udmurt: ӧй карысал(ыз) | he/she would not do | |
| Plural | |||||
| 1st | Udmurt: кары'''салмы''' | we would do | Udmurt: ӧй карысалмы | we would not do | |
| 2nd | Udmurt: кары'''салды''' | you would do | Udmurt: ӧй карысалды | you would not do | |
| 3rd | Udmurt: кары'''салзы''' | they would do | Udmurt: ӧй карысалзы | they would not do | |
The stem of the verb is used for the second person singular imperative in Udmurt. If the stem of a conjugation I verb ends in one consonant or is one syllable and ends in a vowel, the short stem is the imperative. If the stem of a conjugation I verb ends in two consonants, the full stem is used.
The second person plural infinitive is marked with Udmurt: -е(лэ)/-э(лэ) in conjugation I verbs and Udmurt: -лэ in conjugation I verbs.
The imperative negative auxiliary is Udmurt: эн which precedes the infinitive form.
| Imperative | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Person | Udmurt: сиыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: басьтыны (conjugation I) | English | Udmurt: вараны (conjugation II) | English | |
| Singular | |||||||
| 2nd | Udmurt: си! | eat! | Udmurt: басьты! | take/buy! | Udmurt: вара! | talk/speak! | |
| Plural | |||||||
| 2nd | Udmurt: сие(лэ)! | eat! | Udmurt: басьтэ(лэ)! | take/buy! | Udmurt: варалэ! | talk/speak! | |
| Negative singular | |||||||
| 2nd | Udmurt: эн си! | do not eat! | Udmurt: эн басьты! | do not take/buy! | Udmurt: эн вара! | do not talk/speak! | |
| Negative plural | |||||||
| 2nd | Udmurt: эн сие(лэ)! | do not eat! | Udmurt: эн басьтэ(лэ)! | do not take/buy! | Udmurt: эн варалэ! | do not talk/speak! | |
An optative mood is used in certain dialects.
Udmurt makes use of the morphosyntactic structure of inflected nominals and verbs with an auxiliary for modal expressions.
To express ability, the verb Udmurt: луыны, 'to be' is inflected in the third person singular (in all tenses) with the subject in the genitive case. The verb to which the subject directs ability is inflected with the past participle Udmurt: (э)м/(е)м (preterite II, third person singular) with a personal possessive suffix.
| Udmurt | English | Literal translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: Тынад лыкт'''емед''' луиз | You could come | "yours your came was" | |
| Udmurt: Кышномуртлэн магазинэ мын'''емез''' ӧз луы | The woman could not go to the store | "woman's to the store her went was not" |
The desiderative modal expresses desire. The verb Udmurt: потынын, 'to want' is inflected in the third person singular (in all tenses) with the subject in the genitive case. The verb to which the subject directs the desire is inflected with the past participle Udmurt: (э)м/(е)м (preterite II, third person singular) with a personal possessive suffix.
| Udmurt | English | Literal translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: Мынам из'''еме''' потэ | I want to sleep | "mine my slept wants" | |
| Udmurt: Кышномуртлэн магазинэ мын'''емез''' уг поты | The woman does not want to go to the store | "woman's to the store her went not want" |
To express necessity, the word Udmurt: кулэ, 'necessary' is used with the copula verb inflected in the third person singular (in all tenses) with the subject in the dative case. The infinitive of the verb to which the subject directs necessity or an object is used.
| Udmurt | English | Literal translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: Со'''лы''' трос лыдӟиськыны кулэ | He/she needs to read a lot | "to him/her much to read necessity is" | |
| Udmurt: Мыным книга кулэ ӧвӧл | I did not need a book | "to me book necessity is not" |
To express permissiveness, the verb Udmurt: яраны, 'to suit/to be valid' is inflected in the third person singular (in all tenses) with the subject in the dative case. The infinitive of the verb to which the subject directs permissiveness is used.
| Udmurt | English | Literal translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: Мыным кошкыны яра-а? | May I leave? | "to me to leave suits?" | |
| Udmurt: Тӥледлы пырыны уг яра | You (pl) may not come in | "to you (pl) to come in does not suit" |
Udmurt verbs have past, present and future participles. Participles can be used in different ways than ordinary adjectives. In addition to affirmative participles, Udmurt also has caritive participles.
The present participle is Udmurt: -(ӥ)сь/-(и)сь. It is a participle which expresses continuous action. It is affixed to short stems in conjugation I verbs. The present participle caritive is Udmurt: -(ӥ)сьтэм/-(и)сьтэм
| Affirmative | English | Caritive | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: лыдӟ'''ись''' ныл | a girl that reads | Udmurt: лыдӟ'''исьтэм''' ныл | a girl that does not read | |
| Udmurt: кырӟ'''ась''' пи | a boy that sings | Udmurt: кырӟ'''асьтэм''' пи | a boy that does not sing |
In addition to functioning as regular attributive participles, the present participle also functions as a nominalising derivational suffix.
| as a participle | English | as a noun | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: дышетск'''ись''' ныл | a girl that studies | Udmurt: дышетск'''ись''' | student | |
| Udmurt: вис'''ись''' ныл | a girl that gets sick | Udmurt: вис'''ись''' | patient | |
| Udmurt: кырӟ'''ась''' ныл | a girl that sings | Udmurt: кырӟ'''ась''' | singer |
The past participle is Udmurt: -(э)м/-(е)м. It is an attributive participle which expresses completed action. It is affixed to short stems in conjugation I verbs. The past participle caritive is Udmurt: -(э)мтэ/-(е)мтэ.
| Affirmative | English | Caritive | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: лыкт'''эм''' куно | a guest that arrived | Udmurt: лыкт'''эмтэ''' куно | a guest who did not arrive | |
| Udmurt: погра'''м''' писпу | a tree that fell | Udmurt: погра'''мтэ''' писпу | a tree that did not fall | |
| Udmurt: лыӟ'''ем''' книга | a book that has been read | Udmurt: лыӟ'''емтэ''' книга | a book that has not been read |
The past participle can also be inflected with the inessive ending Udmurt: -(э)мын/-(е)мын. This is a predicative participle which expresses completed action.
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: Куно лыкт'''эмын'''. | The guest has arrived. | |
| Udmurt: Писпу погра'''мын'''. | The tree had fallen. | |
| Udmurt: Книга лыӟ'''емын'''. | The book has been read. |
The modal-future participle is Udmurt: -(о)но. It is affixed to short stems in conjugation I verbs. The future participle caritive is Udmurt: -(о)нтэм and expresses that which is unable to be done.
| Affirmative | English | Caritive | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: пия'''но''' кышномурт | a woman who will give birth soon | Udmurt: пия'''нтэм''' кышномурт | a woman who will not be able to give birth | |
| Udmurt: лыӟ'''оно''' книга | a book that will be read | Udmurt: лыӟ'''онтэм''' книга | a book that is not able to be read |
There is also a modal participle similar to gerunds in function. It expresses the ability to do some action or that it is possible to do the action. The marker is Udmurt: -мон and it is affixed to short stems in conjugation I verbs.
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: лэсьты'''мон''' уж | a job (work) which is possible to do | |
| Udmurt: улы'''мон''' корка | a house in which one can live |
There are four gerunds in Udmurt, one being a caritive. that are affixed to the verb's full stem. One gerund, which also has a caritive, is formed by the past participle Udmurt: (э)м/(е)м (preterite II, third person singular) with the instrumental or elative case.
The "basic" Udmurt: -са gerund (and its caritive Udmurt: -тэк) can be compared to the English present active participle -ing and Finnish second or third infinitives, however having more functions. They can express a way of doing something, a reason for the action or a certain condition.
The temporal Udmurt: -ку gerund (Udmurt: -кы in southern dialects) expresses action or state of being which happens simultaneously with the action of the main verb of the clause.
The fourth gerund is Udmurt: -тозь which can express an action or an event that lasts to the starting or ending limit of the action expressed by the predicate verb of the sentence. The gerund also expresses the structure "instead of". In addition, possessive suffixes can be affixed after the Udmurt: -тозь gerund.
| Gerunds | ||
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt | English | |
| Udmurt: -са | ||
| Udmurt: Адями дырты'''са''' мынэ | A person is going in a hurry (lit. rushing) | |
| Udmurt: Адями дырты'''тэк''' мынэ | A person is going without rushing | |
| Udmurt: дышетскись малпаськы'''са''' пуке | The student sits (there) thinking | |
| Udmurt: Атае, корка пыры'''са''', ӝӧк сьӧры пукиз | My father sat at the table when he came into the house (lit. when coming in) | |
| Udmurt: -ку | ||
| Udmurt: Лымыя'''ку''' куазь шуныгес кариське | It (lit. the weather) gets warmer when it snows | |
| Udmurt: -тозь | ||
| Udmurt: Туннэ шунды пукськы'''тозь''' ты дурын улӥмы | We were at the river bank today until sun set (lit. until the setting of the sun) | |
| Udmurt: Ми вуы'''тозь''', та ужез быдэсты | Finish this work by the time we get there (lit. until the time when we arrive) | |
| Udmurt: Тэк пукы'''тозь''', книга коть лыӟы | Instead of idly sitting, why do not you read a book | |
| Udmurt: Вуы'''тозям''' та ужез быдэсты ~ Mон вуы'''тозь''', та ужез быдэсты | Finish this work by the time I get there (lit. until the time when I arrive) | |
The past participle gerund is inflected with either the instrumental Udmurt: -(э)мен/-(е)мен (caritive Udmurt: -мтэен) or elative Udmurt: -(э)мысь/-(е)мысь (caritive Udmurt: -мтэысь) case, both having the basic same meaning of "because". In literary Udmurt, the gerund in the instrumental case is preferred. However, the gerund in the elative case is used with some verbs such as Udmurt: дугдыны 'to cease/stop'.
| Gerunds | ||
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt | English | |
| Udmurt: -(э)мен/-(е)мен | ||
| Udmurt: куазь зор'''емен''' | because it (lit. the weather) stops raining | |
| Udmurt: -(э)мысь/-(е)мысь | ||
| Udmurt: куазь зор'''емысь''' | because it (lit. the weather) stops raining | |
| Udmurt: висись ӝушт'''емысь''' дугдӥз | The patient stopped moaning (lit. from moaning) | |
| Caritive | ||
| Udmurt: куазь зор'''мтэен''' ~ куазь зор'''мтэысь''' | because it (lit. the weather) did not stop raining | |
Personal possessive suffixes can also be affixed to Udmurt: -(э)м-/-(е)ме- gerunds:
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Affirmative | ||
| Udmurt: Висемены'''м''' (~ висемысьты'''м''') та ужез ас дыраз лэсьтыны ӧй быгаты | I could not complete this work on time because I was sick | |
| Caritive | ||
| Udmurt: Тазэ ужез дыраз лэсьтымтэены'''м''' (~ лэсьтымтэысьты'''м'''), мукетъëсыз туж кулэ ужъëс ӝегало | Other important things got delayed because I did not to this job on time | |
If there are no interrogative (question) words (who, what, when etc.), an interrogative phrase is formed by the suffix Udmurt: -а. The interrogative suffix is affixed to the constituent to which the question is concerned. The suffix's placement can also vary according to dialect. Both southern and northern dialect forms are used in literary Udmurt.
| Interrogative suffix | ||
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt | English | |
| Udmurt: Мынӥськод-'''а'''? | Are you going? | |
| Udmurt: Уд-'''а''' мынӥськы? ~ Уд мынӥськы-'''а'''? | Aren't you going? | |
| Udmurt: Чай юиськод-'''а'''? | Are you drinking tea?/Do you drink tea? | |
| Udmurt: Чай уд-'''а'''юиськы? ~ Чай уд юиськы-'''а'''? | Don't you drink tea? | |
| Udmurt: Чай-'''а''' юиськод? | Is it tea which you drink? (not e.g. coffee) | |
| Udmurt: Чай-'''а''' уд юиськы? | Is it tea which you do not drink? (not e.g. coffee) | |
| Udmurt: Нюлэс пичи-'''а'''? | Is the forest small? | |
| Udmurt: Пичи-'''а''' нюлэс ? | Is the forest small? (but not big) | |
| Udmurt: Коля студент ӧвӧл-'''а'''? ~ Ӧвӧл-'''а''' Коля студент? | Isn't Kolja a student? | |
| Udmurt: Отын шур вал-'''а'''? ~ Отын вал-'''а''' шур ? | Was there a river there? | |
| Udmurt: Шур мтын-'''а''' вал? | Was the river close by? | |
| Udmurt: Ммтын-'''а''' шур вал? | Was the river close by? (not far away) | |
| Udmurt: Шур ӧй вал-'''а''' мтын? | Wasn't the river close by? | |
There are a few main derivational suffixes in Udmurt word formation.
Udmurt has the productive deverbalising nominal suffix Udmurt: -(о)н/-(ë)н. Udmurt: -(о)н/-(ë)н is affixed to the short stem of conjugation I verbs and Udmurt: -н affixes directly to the stem of conjugation II verbs The function of this suffix is quite diverse. With this deverbalising affix, the nominal usually:
1. expresses the action (deverbalised noun) set out by the base verb:
| Verb | English | Noun | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: сылыны | to stand | Udmurt: сыл'''он''' | (a) standing | |
| Udmurt: ӝуаны | to burn | Udmurt: ӝуа'''н''' | (a) burning | |
| Udmurt: куасьмыны | to dry | Udmurt: куасьм'''он''' | (a) drying |
2. expresses the result of action:
| Verb | English | Noun | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: вормыны | to win | Udmurt: ворм'''он''' | a victory | |
| Udmurt: кырӟаны | to sing | Udmurt: кырӟа'''н''' | a song |
3. expresses an instrument or tool denoted by an action:
4. expresses the focus of action:
| Verb | English | Noun | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: сиыны | to eat | Udmurt: си'''ëн''' | food | |
| Udmurt: юыны | to drink | Udmurt: ю'''он''' | drink |
Most of these derivations have both abstract and concrete meanings. The derivation can expresses both the action set out by the base verb or result or instrument:
| Verb | English | Noun | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: пукыны | to sit | Udmurt: пуко'''ны''' | (a) sitting, a seat, a chair | |
| Udmurt: висьыны | to become ill | Udmurt: вис'''ëн''' | getting ill, a disease, an illness | |
| Udmurt: шудыны | to play | Udmurt: шуд'''он''' | playing, play, a toy, a plaything |
Deverbalised nominal derivations can function as qualifiers of collocations, such as Udmurt: лыдӟ'''он''' книга 'reader, digest' or Udmurt: ю'''он''' ву 'drinking water'.
Udmurt has the denominalising adjectival suffixes Udmurt: -о/-ë and carritive Udmurt: -тэм. The adjectives formed by the suffix Udmurt: -о/-ë express the condition of a quality, feature or phenomenon of the base word or possession of the referent. The adjectives formed by the suffix Udmurt: -тэм express the lack of quality, feature, phenomenon or referent. This suffix can be compared to the prefix un- or suffix -less in English.
| Adjectival derivational suffixes | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominal | English | Example | English | |
| Udmurt: -о/-ë | ||||
| Udmurt: визь | sense | Udmurt: визьм'''о''' адями | a wise person | |
| Udmurt: кужым | strength | Udmurt: кужым'''о''' ки | a strong hand | |
| Udmurt: шуд | luck | Udmurt: шуд'''о''' нылпи | a lucky child | |
| Udmurt: куар | leaf | Udmurt: куар'''о''' писпу | a leafy tree (a tree with leaves) | |
| Udmurt: туш | beard | Udmurt: туш'''о''' пиосмурт | a bearded man (a man with a beard) | |
| Udmurt: -тэм | ||||
| Udmurt: шуд | luck | Udmurt: шуд'''тэм''' нылпчагыр | an unlucky child | |
| Udmurt: туш | beard | Udmurt: туш'''тэм''' пиосмурт | a beardless man (a man with no beard) | |
| Udmurt: нылпи | child | Udmurt: нылпи'''тэм''' семъя | a childless family (a family with no children) | |
Adjectives formed by the Udmurt: -ӧ suffix can also have a qualifier:
| Nominal | English | Example | English | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: чагыр син | blue eye | Udmurt: чагыр син'''о''' ныл | a blue-eyed girl | |
| Udmurt: кузь ки | long arm | Udmurt: кузь ки'''ë''' адями | a long-armed person (a person with long arms) |
Udmurt also has moderative adjectival suffixes (Udmurt: -алэс, Udmurt: -мыт and Udmurt: -пыр(ъем)) which express a somewhat large, but not complete, amount of quality of an adjective base, usually a colour or flavour. They can be compared to the English suffix -ish. The suffix Udmurt: -мыт does not normally associate with flavour, but Southern dialect variant Udmurt: -пыр(ъем) does.
| Moderative adjectival derivational suffixes | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominal | English | Example | English | |
| Udmurt: вож | green | Udmurt: вож'''алэс''' ~ вож'''мыт''' ~ вож'''пыръем''' дэрем | a greenish shirt | |
| Udmurt: лыз | blue | Udmurt: лыз'''алэс''' ~ лыз'''мыт''' ~ лыз'''пыръем''' кышет | a blueish scarf | |
| Udmurt: сьӧд | black | Udmurt: сьӧд'''алэс''' ~ сьӧд'''мыт''' ~ сьӧд'''пыръем''' йырси | blackish hair | |
| Udmurt: курыт | bitter | Udmurt: курыт'''алэс''' ~ курыт'''пыръем''' кияр | a rather bitter cucumber | |
In Udmurt grammar, the lexical aspect (aktionsart) of verbs is called verbal aspect. Udmurt verbs can be divided into two categories: momentane verbs and frequentative verbs. The transitivity or of a verb mainly relies on if the verb is frequentative or not.
In Udmurt word formation, verbs can be derived by frequentative or causative deverbalising suffixes.
The momentane aspect of Udmurt verbs expresses action (state of being or process) that happens only once. There is no transparent base momentane marker (cf. Finnish momentane verbs). For example, Udmurt: лыӟыны 'to read (once)'. However a causative Udmurt: -т- denotes momentanity and those verbs can be derived into frequentative verbs.
The frequentative aspect expresses that the action (state of being or process) does not happen just one time. The action is continuous or frequent. There are various frequentative markers, usually containing an Udmurt: л, for example Udmurt: лыӟы'''лы'''ны 'to read (frequently/often)'. The frequentative aspect, however, does not denote continuous repetitiveness as in e.g.some Finnish frequentative derivations.
The frequentative deverbalising affixes in Udmurt are Udmurt: -лы- (conjugation I), Udmurt: -лля- (conjugation II) (both historically related to the Finnish frequentative derivational suffix Finnish: [[Frequentative#Finnish|-ele-]]) and Udmurt: -а-/-я- (conjugation I) which precede the infinitive marker Udmurt: ны.
| Frequentative derivation | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Base | English | Derivation | English | ||
| Udmurt: -л- | |||||
| Udmurt: лыдӟыны | to read | → | Udmurt: лыдӟы'''лы'''ны | to read (often) | |
| Udmurt: лыктыны | to come | → | Udmurt: лыкты'''лы'''ны | to come (often) | |
| Udmurt: юыны | to drink | → | Udmurt: юы'''л'''ыны | to drink (often) | |
| Udmurt: -лля- | |||||
| Udmurt: ужаны | to work | → | Udmurt: ужа'''лля'''ны | to work (often) | |
| Udmurt: кораны | to chop | → | Udmurt: кора'''лля'''ны | to chop (often) | |
| Udmurt: -а-/-я- | |||||
| Udmurt: пырыны | to step inside | → | Udmurt: пыр'''а'''ны | to step inside (often) | |
| Udmurt: потыны | to step outside | → | Udmurt: пот'''а'''ны | to step outside (often) | |
| Udmurt: гожтыны | to write | → | Udmurt: гожт'''ъя'''ыны | to write (often) | |
Some verbal derivations, that follow the pattern Udmurt: потыны → Udmurt: пот'''а'''ны, have parallel frequentative derivations, and Udmurt: -лля- can be affixed to an already frequentative derivation:
Udmurt: тубыны 'to rise' → Udmurt: тубы'''лы'''ны 'to rise (often)'
Udmurt: тубыны 'to rise' → Udmurt: туб'''а'''ны → Udmurt: туба'''лля'''ны 'to rise (often)'
Another frequentative verb affix is Udmurt: -иськы-/-ӥськы-, which is historically related to the Finnish frequentative derivational suffix Finnish: [[Frequentative#Finnish|-skele-]]. Udmurt: -иськы-/-ӥськы- frequentative verbs can be considered different from the above-mentioned derivations. Udmurt: -иськы-/-ӥськы- verbs do not semantically denote frequency in the same way; their "oftenness" is related to objective or non-objective relation. For example, the verb Udmurt: лыдӟыны ('to read') requires an object and the verb Udmurt: лыдӟ'''иськ'''ыны does not.
| Udmurt | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: мон лыдӟ'''иськы'''ны яратӥсько | I like to read (generally) | |
| Udmurt: мон книга лыдӟӥсько | I am reading a book |
Udmurt is an SOV language.
The copular verb (Udmurt: '''вань''' Udmurt: vań, – "to be") is omitted if the sentence is in the present tense: Udmurt: '''туннэ кыӵе нунал?''' Udmurt: tunne kiče nunal? ("What day is it today?"). If the sentence expresses possession, the Udmurt: vań can be part of the predicate: Udmurt: '''тӥ палан нюлэсъёс вань-а?''' Udmurt: ti palan ńulesjos vań-a? ("At you (plur.), are there forests?")
These are sentences which introduce a new subject – they often begin with 'there is' or 'there are' in English.
As in most Uralic languages, ownership in Udmurt is expressed by inflection and sentence structure, rather than with a separate verb 'have'. The owner of the object and the possessed object are both inflected with a possessive suffix and used with the copula verb to express ownership.
| Udmurt | English | Literal translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Udmurt: мынам книгае вань | I have a book | "mine my book is" | |
| Udmurt: мынам книгае ӧвӧл | I do not have a book | "mine my book is not" | |
| Udmurt: мынам книгае вал | I had a book | "mine my book was" | |
| Udmurt: мынам книгае ӧй вал | I did not have a book | "mine my book was not" |