Geordie Explained

Geordie is an English dialect spoken in the Tyneside area of North East England,^[1] ^[2] especially connected with Newcastle upon Tyne,^[1] ^[2] ^[3] and sometimes known in linguistics as Tyneside English or Newcastle English. The Geordie dialect and identity are primarily associated with a working-class background.^[4] A 2008 newspaper survey found the Geordie accent to be perceived as the "most attractive in England" among the British public.^[5]

Geordie is also a nickname for a resident of this same region,^[6] though there are different definitions of what constitutes a Geordie, and not everyone from the North East identifies as such.^[7] ^[8] Furthermore, a Geordie can mean a supporter of the football club Newcastle United.^[9] Geordie Schooner glass was traditionally used to serve Newcastle Brown Ale.^[10]

History

Like all English dialects, the Geordie dialect traces back to the Old English spoken by Anglo-Saxon settlers, initially employed by the ancient Brythons who fought Pictish invaders after the end of Roman rule in Britain in the 5th century. The Angles, Saxons, and Jutes who arrived became ascendant politically and culturally over the native British through subsequent migration from tribal homelands along the North Sea coast of mainland Europe. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that emerged in the Dark Ages spoke largely mutually intelligible varieties of what is now called Old English, each varying somewhat in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon. In Northern England and the Scottish borders, then dominated by the kingdom of Northumbria, there developed a distinct Northumbrian Old English dialect, which preceded modern Geordie. The linguistic conservatism of Geordie means that poems by the Anglo-Saxon scholar the Venerable Bede can be translated more successfully into Geordie than into standard modern English.^[11]

The British Library points out that the Norse, who primarily lived south of the River Tees, affected the language in Yorkshire but not in regions to the north. This source adds that "the border skirmishes that broke out sporadically during the Middle Ages meant the River Tweed established itself as a significant northern barrier against Scottish influence". Today, many who speak the Geordie dialect use words such as gan ('go' – modern Dutch Dutch; Flemish: gaan) and bairn ('child' – modern Danish Danish: barn), which "can still trace their roots right back to the Angles".^[12]

Geographical coverage

People

When referring to the people, as opposed to the dialect, dictionary definitions of a Geordie typically refer to a native or inhabitant of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, or its environs,^[13] an area that encompasses North Tyneside, Newcastle, South Tyneside and Gateshead.^[14] ^[15] This area has a combined population of around 700,000, based on 2011 census-data.

The term itself, according to Brockett, originated from all the North East coal mines. The catchment area for the term "Geordie" can include Northumberland and County Durham or be confined to an area as small as the city of Newcastle upon Tyne and the metropolitan boroughs of Tyneside.

Scott Dobson, the author of the book Larn Yersel Geordie, once stated that his grandmother, who was brought up in Byker, thought the miners were the true Geordies. There is a theory the name comes from the Northumberland and Durham coal mines. Poems and songs written in this area in 1876 (according to the OED), speak of the "Geordie".

Dialect

Academics refer to the Geordie dialect as "Tyneside English".

According to the British Library, "Locals insist there are significant differences between Geordie and several other local dialects, such as Pitmatic and Mackem. Pitmatic is the dialect of the former mining areas in County Durham and around Ashington to the north of Newcastle upon Tyne, while Mackem is used locally to refer to the dialect of the city of Sunderland and the surrounding urban area of Wearside".^[16]

Etymology

A number of rival theories explain how the term "Geordie" came about, though all accept that it derives from a familiar diminutive form of the name George,^[17] "a very common name among the pitmen"^[18] ^[19] (coal miners) in North East England; indeed, it was once the most popular name for eldest sons in the region.

One account traces the name to the times of the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715. The Jacobites declared that the natives of Newcastle were staunch supporters of the Hanoverian kings, whose first representative George I reigned (1714–1727) at the time of the 1715 rebellion. Newcastle contrasted with rural Northumberland, which largely supported the Jacobite cause. In this case, the term "Geordie" may have derived from the popular anti-Hanoverian song "Cam Ye O'er Frae France?",^[20] which calls the first Hanoverian king "Geordie Whelps", a play on "George the Guelph".

Another explanation for the name states that local miners in the northeast of England used Geordie safety lamps, designed by George Stephenson, known locally as "Geordie the engine-wright",^[21] in 1815^[22] rather than the competing Davy lamps, designed about the same time by Humphry Davy and used in other mining communities. Using the chronological order of two John Trotter Brockett books, Geordie was given to North East pitmen; later he acknowledges that the pitmen also christened their Stephenson lamp Geordie.

Linguist Katie Wales^[23] also dates the term earlier than does the current Oxford English Dictionary; she observes that Geordy (or Geordie) was a common name given to coal-mine pitmen in ballads and songs of the region, noting that such usage turns up as early as 1793. It occurs in the titles of two songs by songwriter Joe Wilson: "Geordy, Haud the Bairn" and "Keep your Feet Still, Geordie". Citing such examples as the song "Geordy Black", written by Rowland Harrison of Gateshead, she contends that, as a consequence of popular culture, the miner and the keelman had become icons of the region in the 19th century, and "Geordie" was a label that "affectionately and proudly reflected this," replacing the earlier ballad emblem, the figure of Bob Crankie.

In the English Dialect Dictionary of 1900, Joseph Wright gave as his fourth definition of "Geordie": A man from Tyneside; a miner; a north-country collier vessel, quoting two sources from Northumberland, one from East Durham and one from Australia. The source from Durham stated: "In South Tyneside even, this name was applied to the Lower Tyneside men."^[24]

Newcastle publisher Frank Graham's Geordie Dictionary states:

In Graham's many years of research, the earliest record he found of the term's use dated to 1823 by local comedian Billy Purvis. Purvis had set up a booth at the Newcastle Races on the Town Moor. In an angry tirade against a rival showman, who had hired a young pitman called Tom Johnson to dress as a clown, Billy cried out to the clown:

(Rough translation: "Oh man, who but a fool would have sold off his furniture and left his wife? Now, you're a fair downright fool, not an artificial fool like Billy Purvis! You're a real Geordie! Go on, man, and hide yourself! Go on and get your picks [axes] again. You may do for the city, but never for the west end of our town!")

John Camden Hotten wrote in 1869: "Geordie, general term in Northumberland and Durham for a pitman, or coal-miner. Origin not known; the term has been in use more than a century."^[25] Using Hotten as a chronological reference, Geordie has been documented for at least years as a term related to Northumberland and County Durham.

The name Bad-weather Geordy applied to cockle sellers:

Travel writer Scott Dobson used the term "Geordieland" in a 1973 guidebook to refer collectively to Northumberland and Durham.^[26]

Linguistic surveys

The Survey of English Dialects included Earsdon and Heddon-on-the-Wall in its fieldwork, administering more than 1,000 questions to local informants.^[27]

The Linguistic Survey of Scotland included Cumberland and Northumberland (using historic boundaries) in its scope, collecting words through postal questionnaires.^[28] Tyneside sites included Cullercoats, Earsdon, Forest Hall, Gosforth, Newcastle upon Tyne, Wallsend-on-Tyne and Whitley Bay.^[29]

Phonology

pronounced as /notice/The phonemic notation used in this article is based on the set of symbols used by . Other scholars may use different transcriptions. Watt and Allen stated that there were approximately 800,000 people in the early 2000s who spoke this form of British English.^[30] ^[31]

Tyneside English (TE) is spoken in Newcastle upon Tyne, a city of around 260,000 inhabitants in the far north of England, and in the conurbation stretching east and south of Newcastle along the valley of the River Tyne as far as the North Sea. The total population of this conurbation, which also subsumes Gateshead, Jarrow, North and South Shields, Whitley Bay, and Tynemouth, exceeds 800,000.

Consonants

Geordie consonants generally follow those of Received Pronunciation, with these unique characteristics as follows:

pronounced as //ɪŋ// appearing in an unstressed final syllable of a word (such as in reading) is pronounced as pronounced as /[ən]/ (thus, reading is pronounced as /[ˈɹiːdən]/).
The Geordie accent does not use the glottal stop in a usual fashion. It is characterised by a unique type of glottal stops. pronounced as //p, t, k// can all be pronounced simultaneously with a glottal stop after them in Geordie, both at the end of a syllable and sometimes before a weak vowel.
- T-glottalisation, in which pronounced as //t// is realised by pronounced as /[ʔ]/ before a syllabic nasal (e.g., button as pronounced as /[ˈbʊtʔn̩]/), in absolute final position (get as pronounced as /[ɡɛtʔ]/), and whenever the pronounced as //t// is intervocalic so long as the latter vowel is not stressed (pity as pronounced as /[ˈpɪtʔi]/).
- Glottaling in Geordie is known as 'pre-glottalisation', which is "an occlusion at the appropriate place of articulation and 'glottalisation', usually manifested as a short period of laryngealised voice before and/or after and often also during the stop gap". This type of glottal is unique to Tyneside English.^[32]
Other voiceless stops, pronounced as //p, k//, are glottally reinforced in medial position, and preaspirated in final position.
The dialect is non-rhotic like most other dialects of England, with pronounced as //r// being realised most commonly as an alveolar approximant pronounced as /link/, although a labiodental realisation pronounced as /link/ is additionally growing in prevalence among younger females. (This variant is also possible, albeit rarer, in the speech of older males.) Traditionally, intrusive R was not present in Geordie, with speakers instead glottalising between boundaries; however, it is present in newer varieties of the dialect.
Yod-coalescence in both stressed and unstressed syllables (so that dew becomes pronounced as /[dʒɵʊ]/).
pronounced as //l// is traditionally clear in all contexts, meaning the velarised allophone is absent. However, modern accents may periodically use pronounced as /[ɫ]/ in syllable final positions, sometimes it may even be vocalised (as in bottle pronounced as /[ˈbɒʔʊ]/).

Vowels

! colspan="3"
		Back
Front	Central	Back

Close		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Close-mid		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
Open-mid	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/
Open	pronounced as /link/	(pronounced as /link/)			pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/

Length

For some speakers, vowel length alternates with vowel quality in a very similar way to the Scottish vowel length rule.
Vowel length is phonemic for many speakers of Geordie, meaning that length is often the one and only phonetic difference between and (pronounced as //ɛ// and pronounced as //ɛː//) or between and (pronounced as //ɒ// and pronounced as //ɒː//). If older or traditional dialect forms are considered, (pronounced as //a//) also has a phonemic long counterpart pronounced as //aː//, which is mostly used in words spelled with (a), making minimal pairs such as tack pronounced as //tak// vs. talk pronounced as //taːk// (less broad Geordie pronunciation: pronounced as //tɔːk//). Another pronounced as /link/ appears as an allophone of pronounced as //a// before final voiced consonants in words such as lad pronounced as /[laːd]/.

Phonetic quality and phonemic incidence

and, pronounced as //iː, uː//, are typically somewhat closer than in other varieties in morphologically closed syllables; pronounced as //uː// is also less prone to fronting than in other varieties of BrE and its quality is rather close to the cardinal pronounced as /link/. However, younger women tend to use a central pronounced as /link/ instead. In morphologically open syllables, and are realised as closing diphthongs pronounced as /[ei, ɵʊ]/. This creates minimal pairs such as freeze pronounced as /[fɹiːz]/ vs. frees pronounced as /[fɹeiz]/ and bruise pronounced as /[bɹuːz ~ bɹʉːz]/ (hereafter transcribed with (IPA|uː) for the sake of simplicity) vs. brews pronounced as /[bɹɵʊz]/.
- The vowel is tense pronounced as /link/ and is best analysed as belonging to the pronounced as //iː// phoneme.
As with other Northern English varieties, Geordie lacks the – split, so that words like cut, up and luck have the same pronounced as //ʊ// phoneme as put, sugar and butcher. The typical phonetic realisation is unrounded pronounced as /link/, but it may be hypercorrected to pronounced as /link/ among middle-class (especially female) speakers.
The long close-mid vowels pronounced as //eː, oː//, in and, may be realised as monophthongs pronounced as /[{{IPAplink|eː}}, {{IPAplink|oː}}]/ in open syllables or as opening diphthongs pronounced as /[ɪə, ʊə]/ in closed syllables. Alternatively, pronounced as //eː// can be a closing diphthong pronounced as /[eɪ]/ and pronounced as //oː// can be centralised to pronounced as /link/. The opening diphthongs are recessive, as younger speakers reject them in favour of the monophthongal pronounced as /[{{IPAplink|eː}}, {{IPAplink|oː}} ~ {{IPAplink|ɵː}}]/.
- Other, now archaic, realisations of pronounced as //oː// include pronounced as /link/ in snow pronounced as /[snaː]/ and pronounced as /[aʊ]/ in soldiers pronounced as /[ˈsaʊldʒɐz]/.
- Many female speakers merge pronounced as //oː// with pronounced as //ɔː//, but the exact phonetic quality of the merged vowel is uncertain.
, pronounced as //øː//, may be phonetically pronounced as /link/ or a higher, unrounded vowel pronounced as /link/. An RP-like vowel pronounced as /link/ is also possible.
- In older broadest Geordie, merges with pronounced as //ɔː// to pronounced as /link/ under the influence of a uvular pronounced as /link/ that once followed it (when Geordie was still a rhotic dialect). The fact that the original pronounced as //ɔː// vowel is never hypercorrected to pronounced as /link/ or pronounced as /link/ suggests that either this merger was never categorical, or that speakers are unusually successful in sorting those vowels out again.
The schwa pronounced as //ə// is often rather open (pronounced as /link/). It also tends to be longer in duration than the preceding stressed vowel, even if that vowel is phonologically long. Therefore, words such as water and meter are pronounced pronounced as /[ˈwɔd̰ɐː]/ and pronounced as /[ˈmid̰ɐː]/. This feature is shared with the very conservative (Upper Crust) variety of Received Pronunciation.
- Words such as voices and ended have pronounced as //ə// in the second syllable (so pronounced as //ˈvɔɪsəz, ˈɛndəd//), rather than the pronounced as //ɪ// of RP. That does not mean that Geordie has undergone the weak vowel merger because pronounced as //ɪ// can still be found in some unstressed syllables in place of the more usual pronounced as //ə//. An example of that is the second syllable of seven pronounced as //ˈsɛvɪn//, but it can also be pronounced with a simple schwa pronounced as //ə// instead. Certain weak forms also have pronounced as //ɪ// instead of pronounced as //ə//; these include at pronounced as //ɪt// (homophonous with strong it), of pronounced as //ɪv// (nearly homophonous with if), as pronounced as //ɪz// (homophonous with strong is), can pronounced as //kɪn// and us pronounced as //ɪz// (again, homophonous with strong is).
As in other Northern English dialects, the vowel is short pronounced as //a// in Geordie, thus there is no London-style trap–bath split. There are a small number of exceptions to this rule; for instance, half, master, plaster and sometimes also disaster are pronounced with the vowel pronounced as //ɒː//.
Some speakers unround, pronounced as //ɒː//, to pronounced as /link/. Regardless of the rounding, the difference in backness between pronounced as //ɒː// and pronounced as //a// is very pronounced, a feature which Geordie shares with RP and some northern and midland cities such as Stoke-on-Trent and Derby, but not with the accents of the middle north.
Older traditional Geordie does not always adhere to the same distributional patterns of vowels found in standard varieties of English. Examples of that include the words no and stone, which may be pronounced pronounced as /[niː]/ and pronounced as /[stɪən]/, so with vowels that are best analysed as belonging to the pronounced as //iː// and pronounced as //iə// phonemes.

! colspan="3"

Endpoint
Start point	pronounced as /ɛɪ (aɪ)/	pronounced as /iə/	pronounced as /æʊ/
Start point	pronounced as /ɔɪ/	pronounced as /uə/

Diphthongs

The second elements of and, pronounced as //iə, uə//, are commonly as open as the typical Geordie realisation of pronounced as //ə// (pronounced as /link/).
The first element of, pronounced as //æʊ//, varies between pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/ and pronounced as /link/. Traditionally, this whole vowel was a high monophthong pronounced as /link/ (with town being pronounced close to RP toon) and this pronunciation can still be heard, as can a narrower diphthong pronounced as /[əu]/ (with town being pronounced close to RP tone).
is pronounced as //ɛɪ//, but Geordie speakers generally use a less common allophone for certain environments in accordance with the Scottish vowel length rule, pronounced as /[äɪ]/, which has a longer, lower, and more back onset than the main allophone. Thus pronounced as /[ɛɪ]/ is used in words such as knife pronounced as /[nɛɪf]/, whereas pronounced as /[äɪ]/ is used in knives pronounced as /[näɪvz]/. For simplicity, both of them are written with (IPA|ɛɪ) in this article.

Vocabulary

The Geordie dialect shares similarities with other Northern English dialects, as well as with the Scots language (See Rowe 2007, 2009).

Dorfy, real name Dorothy Samuelson-Sandvid, was a noted Geordie dialect writer.^[33] ^[34] In her column for the South Shields Gazette, Samuelson-Sandvid attests many samples of Geordie language usage, such as the nouns bairn ("child")^[35] and clarts ("mud"); the adjectives canny ("pleasant")^[36] and clag ("sticky");^[37] and the imperative verb phrase howay ("hurry up!"; "come on!")

Howay is broadly comparable to the invocation "Come on!" or the French "Allez-y!" ("Go on!"). Examples of common use include Howay man!, meaning "come on" or "hurry up", Howay the lads! as a term of encouragement for a sports team for example (the players' tunnel at St James' Park has this phrase just above the entrance to the pitch), or Ho'way!? (with stress on the second syllable) expressing incredulity or disbelief. The literal opposite of this phrase is haddaway ("go away"); although not as common as howay, it is perhaps most commonly used in the phrase "Haddaway an' shite" (Tom Hadaway, Figure 5.2 Haddaway an' shite; 'Cursing like sleet blackening the buds, raging at the monk of Jarrow scribbling his morality and judgement into a book.').^[38]

Another word, divvie or divvy ("idiot"), seems to come from the Co-op dividend,^[39] or from the two Davy lamps (the more explosive Scotch Davy^[40] used in 1850, commission disapproved of its use in 1886 (inventor not known, nicknamed Scotch Davy probably given by miners after the Davy lamp was made perhaps by north east miners who used the Stephenson Lamp^[22] ^[41]), and the later better designed Davy designed by Humphry Davy also called the Divvy.^[42]) As in a north east miner saying 'Marra, ye keep way from me if ye usin a divvy.' It seems the word divvie then translated to daft lad/lass. Perhaps coming from the fact one would be seen as foolish going down a mine with a Scotch Divvy when there are safer lamps available, like the Geordie, or the Davy.

The Geordie word netty,^[43] meaning a toilet and place of need and necessity for relief^[43] ^[44] ^[45] or bathroom,^[43] ^[44] ^[45] has an uncertain origin.^[46] However, some have theorised that it may come from slang used by Roman soldiers on Hadrian's Wall, which may have later become gabinetti in the Romance language Italian (such as in the Westoe Netty, the subject of a famous painting from Bob Olley^[47] ^[48]). However, gabbinetto is the Modern Italian diminutive of gabbia, which actually derives from the Latin cavea ("hollow", "cavity", "enclosure"), the root of the loanwords that became the Modern English cave,^[49] cage,^[50] and gaol.^[51] Thus, another explanation would be that it comes from a Modern Italian form of the word gabinetti,^[46] though only a relatively small number of Italians have migrated to the North of England, mostly during the 19th century.^[52]

Some etymologists connect the word netty to the Modern English word needy. John Trotter Brockett, writing in 1829 in his A glossary of north country words...,^[45] claims that the etymon of netty (and its related form neddy) is the Modern English needy^[53] and need.^[54]

Bill Griffiths, in A Dictionary of North East Dialect, points to the earlier form, the Old English níd; he writes: "MS locates a possible early ex. "Robert Hovyngham sall make... at the other end of his house a knyttyng" York 1419, in which case the root could be OE níd 'necessary'".^[44] Another related word, nessy is thought (by Griffiths) to derive from the Modern English "necessary".^[44]

A poem called "Yam" narrated by author Douglas Kew demonstrates the usage of a number of Geordie words.^[55] ^[56]

External links

Newcastle English (Geordie)
Sounds Familiar? —Listen to examples of Geordie and other regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website
'Hover & Hear' Geordie pronunciations, and compare side by side with other accents from the UK and around the World.
The Geordie Directory—Find out about & learn the Geordie accent

Notes and References

Web site: Geordie Accent and Dialect Origins. 19 August 2017 . englandsnortheast.co.uk. 2016.
Web site: Geordie Guide: Defining Geordie . 13 November 2019. Newcastle University . 13 November 2019.
Web site: Geordie: A regional dialect of English. The British Library. 19 May 2020. 5 May 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210505185130/https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/geordie-a-regional-dialect-of-english. dead.
Web site: Nickel . Sebastian . 2017 . Term paper. The Geordie Dialect. On Language Identity and the Social Perception of Tyneside English . GRIN . subscription.
Web site: Scots accent is UK's second favourite - UK - Scotsman.com . The Scotsman . 2008-09-24 . 2013-06-15 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090329091539/http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/uk/Scots-accent-is-UK39s-second.4525816.jp . 29 March 2009 .
Web site: AskOxford.com – a person from Tyneside. 1 September 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070929145559/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/geordie?view=uk . 29 September 2007.
Web site: Are you Geordie, a Mackem or a Smoggie?. Tom. Rowley. 21 April 2012. nechronicle. 19 May 2020.
Web site: The day Ken Dodd learned not to call Teessiders 'Geordies'. Joanne. Welford. 12 March 2018. gazettelive. 19 May 2020.
Web site: Andy Gray & Richard Keys: EPL predictions . 29 August 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130827182024/http://www.sport360.com/football/andy-gray-richard-keys-epl-predictions-week-2 . 27 August 2013 .
News: Meet The Geordie Schooner. https://web.archive.org/web/20100924195311/http://blogs.forbes.com/booze/2010/05/17/meet-the-geordie-schooner/ . 24 September 2010 . Forbes . David M. . Ewalt.
Web site: Simpson. David. Venerable Bede. Bede's Latin poems seem to translate more successfully into Geordie than into modern day English!. 2009. 6 August 2010.
Web site: Geordie: A regional dialect of English . 13 November 2019 . 5 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210505185130/https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/geordie-a-regional-dialect-of-english . dead .
Web site: Geordie . thefreedictionary.com . 7 October 2018 .
Web site: Jarrow Song. AlLyrics . 7 October 2008.
Web site: Blaydon Races . 29 September 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071106024755/http://www.tomorrows-history.com/CommunityProjects/PE0100050001/Blaydon%20Races.htm . 6 November 2007.
Web site: Geordie: A regional dialect of English . 13 November 2019 . 5 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210505185130/https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/geordie-a-regional-dialect-of-english . dead .
Web site: AskOxford.com – from the given name George. 1 September 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070929145559/http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/geordie?view=uk . 29 September 2007.
Book: Brockett, John Trotter. A Glossary of North Country Words in Use with Their Etymology and Affinity to Other Languages, and Occasional Notices of Local Customs and Popular Superstitions. E. Charnley. GEORDIE, George-a very common name among the pitmen. "How! Geordie man! how is't". 1829. 131.
Book: Brockett, John Trotter. A Glossary of North Country Words. revised. GEORDIE, George – a very common name among the pitmen. 'How! Geordie man! How is't' The Pitmen have given the name of Geordie to Mr George Stephenson's lamp in contra-distinction of the Davy, or Sir Humphry Davy's Lamp.. 1846. 187. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, E. Charnley.
Recorded by the folk group Steeleye Span on their album Parcel of Rogues, 1973.
Book: Smiles, Samuel. The lives of the engineers. III. 1862. chapter 8.
Book: Smiles, Samuel . The Life of George Stephenson, Railway Engineer . As to the value of the invention of the safety lamp, there could be no doubt; and the colliery owners of Durham and Northumberland, to testify their sense of its importance, determined to present a testimonial to its inventor. . 1859 . 120. Ticknor and Fields.
Book: Northern English: A Cultural and Social History. limited. Katie Wales. 134–136. 2006. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-86107-6.
Book: Wright, Joseph . 1900 . English Dialect Dictionary Volume 2: D-G . 597 . London . Henry Frowde.
Book: Camden Hotten, John . John Camden Hotten . The Slang Dictionary: Or Vulgar Words, Street Phrases and Fast Expressions of High and Low Society . Geordie, general term in Northumberland and Durham for a pitman, or coal-miner. Origin not known; the term has been in use more than a century . 142 . 1869. 2004. reprint. 2007-10-11.
Book: Dobson, Scott . A Light Hearted Guide to Geordieland . Graham . 1973 . Plus Geordieland means Northumberland and Durham . 978-0-902833-89-0.
Book: Survey of English Dialects: Volume 1 Basic Material, Six Northern Counties and Man: Part 1. Harold. Orton. Wilfrid J. Halliday. 1962. EJ Arnold & Son. Leeds. 17–18.
Book: Petyt, Keith Malcolm . 0233972129 . 1980 . The Study of Dialect: An introduction to dialectology . Andre Deutsch. 94–96 .
Book: 212–213. The Linguistic Atlas of Scotland: Scots Section, Volume 2. Mather. J.Y. Spetiel. H.H.. Leslie. G.W.. Archon Books. Hamden, Connecticut. 1977. 0208014756.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231854084_Tyneside_English Tyneside English
https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/A8D7536DC9832732B0BEDD66E79A1878/S0025100303001397a.pdf/tyneside_english.pdf Tyneside English, Dominic Watt and William Allen
Book: Glottal variants of (t) in the Tyneside variety of English: an acoustic profiling study. Docherty . Foulkes . Gerard . Paul Foulkes . A Figure of Speech – a Festschrift for John Laver. Lawrence Erlbaum . 2005 . Hardcastle . William . Janet Beck . London . 173–199.
Web site: Dorphy, Dorothy Samuelson-Sandvid. Dorphy's Geordie dialog, South Shields Gazette. 4 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20030413133406/http://website.lineone.net/~d.ord/Dorphy.htm . 13 April 2003.
Book: Sandvid , D. Basinful o' Geordie: Tyneside Readings. H Hill. 1970. 978-0-900463-11-2.
Web site: Dorfy looking fondly back on her youth . Aa wuz a bairn. . South Shields Gazette . 29 July 2009 . 13 May 2012.
Web site: Here's a word from Dorfy . Is canny, friendly, hyemly wawds that waarms aall Geordie hearts. . South Shields Gazette . 17 March 2009 . 13 May 2012.
Web site: Here's a word from Dorfy . Wor Geordie taalk is hyemly taalk; an wawds like 'clag' and 'clarts' . South Shields Gazette . 17 March 2009 . 13 May 2012.
Book: Colls. Robert. Lancaster. Bill. Bryne. David. Carr. Barry. Hadaway. Tom. Knox. Elaine. Plater. Alan. Taylor. Harvey. Williamson. Younger. Paul. Geordies. Hadaway an' shite; 'Cursing like sleet blackening the buds, raging at the monk of Jarrow scribbling his morality and judgement into a book.'. 90. Northumbria University Press. 2005. 978-1-904794-12-7.
Book: IMS: Customer Satisfaction: BIP2005 (Integrated Management Systems). An early example, which may be remembered by older readers was the Co-op dividend or 'divvie'. On paying their bill, shoppers would quote a number recorded .... BSI Standards. 2003. 10. 978-0-580-41426-8.
Web site: Henderson. Clarks. NEIMME: Lamps – No. 14. SCOTCH DAVY LAMP.. CONSTRUCTION. Gauzes. Cylindrical, 2 ins diameter. 41/2" high with conical top, a double gauze 1 ins. in depth at the peak. 24 mesh iron. Light. Candle.. 2 December 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20081120122607/http://www.mininginstitute.org.uk./lamps/Davy.html. 20 November 2008.
Web site: Henderson. Clarks. NEIMME: Lamps – No. 16. STEPHENSON (GEORDIE) LAMP.. 2 December 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20081120145729/http://www.mininginstitute.org.uk/lamps/Stephenson.html. 20 November 2008.
Web site: Henderson. Clarks. NEIMME: Lamps – No. 1 – DAVY LAMP.. 2 December 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20081120122607/http://www.mininginstitute.org.uk./lamps/Davy.html. 20 November 2008.
Book: Graham, Frank . The Geordie Netty: A Short History and Guide . Butler Publishing; New Ed edition . November 1986. 978-0-946928-08-8 .
Book: Griffiths , Bill . A Dictionary of North East Dialect. Netty outside toilet, Ex.JG Annfield Plain 1930s. "nessy or netty" Newbiggin-in-Teesdale C20/mid; "outside netties" Dobson Tyne 1972; 'lavatory' Graham Geordie 1979. EDD distribution to 1900: N'd. NE 2001: in circulation. ?C18 nessy from necessary; ? Ital. cabinette; Raine MS locates a possible early ex. "Robert Hovyngham sall make... at the other end of hys house knyttyng" York 1419, in which case root could be OE nid 'necessity'. Plus "to go to the Necessary" (public toilet) Errington p.67 Newcastle re 1800s: "lav" Northumbrian III C20/2 re Crawcrook; "oot back" G'head 2001 Q; "larty – toilet, a children's word, the school larties'" MM S.Shields C20/2 lavatory. Northumbria University Press. 1 December 2005. 122. 978-1-904794-16-5.
Book: Trotter Brockett, John . A glossary of north country words, in use. From an original manuscript, with additions. . NEDDY, NETTY, a certain place that will not bear a written explanation; but which is depleted to the very life in a tail-piece in the first edition of Bewick's Land Birds, p. 285. In the second edition a bar is placed against the offending part of this broad display of native humour. Etymon needy, a place of need or necessity. . Oxford University . 1829 . 214 .
Web site: Netty. although some theories suggest it is an abbreviation of Italian gabbinetti, meaning 'toilet'.
News: Urinal finds museum home. the urinals have linguistic distinction: the Geordie word "netty" for lavatory derives from Roman slang on Hadrian's Wall which became "gabinetto" in Italian. 8 October 2007 . The Guardian . London . Martin . Wainwright . 4 April 2007.
News: Famed Geordie netty is museum attraction . The Northern Echo . 31 March 2007 .
Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary . Etymonline.com . 2013-06-15.
Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary . Etymonline.com . 2013-06-15.
Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary . Etymonline.com . 2013-06-15.
Web site: Saunders. Rod. Italian Migration to Nineteenth Century Britain: Why and Where, Why?. They were never in great numbers in the northern cities. For example, the Italian Consul General in Liverpool, in 1891, is quoted as saying that the majority of the 80–100 Italians in the city were organ grinders and street sellers of ice-cream and plaster statues. And that the 500–600 Italians in Manchester included mostly Terrazzo specialists, plasterers and modellers working on the prestigious, new town hall. While in Sheffield 100–150 Italians made cutlery.. anglo-italianfhs.org.uk. 3 September 2008.
Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary . Etymonline.com . 2013-06-15.
Web site: Online Etymology Dictionary . Etymonline.com . 2013-06-15.
29 July 2007. YAM narrated by author Douglas Kew. 2 January 2008.
Book: Douglas. Kew. A Traveller's Tale. Trafford Publishing. 7 February 2001. 978-1-55212-552-6.