Twain–Ament indemnities controversy explained

The Twain–Ament indemnities controversy was a major French: [[cause célèbre]] in the United States of America in 1901 as a consequence of the published reactions of American humorist Mark Twain to reports of Rev. William Scott Ament and other missionaries collecting indemnities (in excess of losses) from Chinese people in the aftermath of the Boxer Uprising.

Origins of the Controversy

In 1900, attacks took place across China in connection with the Boxer Rebellion which targeted Christians and foreigners. Many missionaries with their children, as well as native Christians were killed and much property was destroyed.[1] While most missionaries, including those of the largest affected mission agency, the China Inland Mission led by Hudson Taylor, refused to even accept payment for loss of property or life "in order to demonstrate the meekness of Christ to the Chinese" when the allied nations were demanding compensation from the Chinese government,[2] not all missionaries acted with similar restraint.

In 1901, veteran American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions missionary Rev. Dr. William Scott Ament, who had served in China since 1877, became embroiled in a controversy regarding his activities (and those of other Christian missionaries, including Pierre-Marie-Alphonse Favier, Roman Catholic Vicar Apostolic of Northern Chi-li) subsequent to the Boxer Uprising. "In the war's aftermath came a war of words. Missionary triumphalism clashed with the sarcastic sallies of Mark Twain, who lampooned the apologias for looting given by American missionary William Scott Ament."[3]

Ament's attitude and actions

While Ament through his own personal initiative was able to rescue the ABCFM missionaries at Tungchow, there was still significant loss of lives. Thirteen ABCFM adult missionaries and five children were killed by the Boxers. Included were Mary Susan Morrill (born 1863 in Portland, Maine) and Annie Allender Gould, were among the eleven foreign missionaries, four children, and about fifty Chinese Christians killed in Baoding from 30 June 1900.[4] Additionally, there was much damage to ABCFM property. The ABCFM Mission compound was razed, as was the Emily Ament Memorial School (named in honor of Ament's daughter) on Sixth Street, Peking.[5] [6] Ament estimated that by the end of July 1900 that losses for the ABCFM Peking station was about $71,000 gold.[7]

Occupation of the Mongolian Fu

On 11 August 1900, Ament indicated in a letter to his wife that:[8]

Ament was able to occupy the Mongolian Fu, a suspected Boxer headquarters adjacent to the ABCFM chapel, by 20 August 1900.[9] Ament was able to write to his wife:[10]

Demand for indemnities

On 20 August 1900, Ament with nineteen other American Protestant missionaries sent a note to United States Minister, Edwin H. Conger, demanding:[11]

These demands were transmitted to John Hay (8 October 1838; 1 July 1905), United States Secretary of State (1898–1905), with only the demands for indemnities and the abolition of the examination system ultimately included in the Boxer Protocol. According to Wong:[12]

On 25 August 1900, Ament revealed his plans to punish the Boxers for their actions:[13]

Again, Ament indicated:[14]

Collection of indemnities

From 13 September 1900, Ament, and a colleague, Reverend Elwood Gardner Tewksbury,[15] accompanied by the U.S. 6th Cavalry, searched the areas adjacent to Beijing for Boxers, collecting indemnities for Christians who had been killed by the Boxers, and ordering the burning of some homes and even allegedly executing suspected Boxers.[16] Ament had been chosen by his fellow missionaries "as the one who would be honorable and just to all."[17] Ament reported to Mary, his wife, on 18 September 1900:[18]

On 1 January 1901, Ament, writing to his wife, confided:[19]

Ament is quoted as advocating the necessity of the use of force to ensure genuine regret among the Chinese: "If you deal with the Chinese with a soft hand, they will take advantage of it."[20]

In a letter to ABCFM corresponding secretary Dr. Judson Smith of 13 November 1900 (received by Smith on 7 January 1901), Ament wrote:[21]

Apparently, the actions of Russian, French, and German soldiers, "who looted and killed on every hand, often taking delight in shooting every person visible ... determined Dr. Ament not to go again with soldiers in his efforts to secure the replacing of the Christian in their homes, or to enforce the reasonable demands for indemnity for the great losses sustained by the church-members."[22] Ament wrote in a letter on 27 September 1900, about a month after the occupation of the Mongol Fu (palace): "I am selling off the bric-a-brac, silks, furs found in the Fu for the benefit of the Christians."[23]

Ament, writing to Rev. Dr. Judson Smith on 27 December 1900, before he became aware of any criticism, gave this account of the collection of indemnities:[24]

Criticisms of Ament and his actions

Wilbur Chamberlin and New York Sun article (24 December 1900)

An interview that Wilbur Chamberlin of the New York Sun conducted with Ament elevated the indulgences issue into a French: [[cause célèbre]]. Chamberlin had first met Ament in Beijing on 14 October 1900. In a letter to his wife, Chamberlin indicated:[25]

While Chamberlin thought it unlikely that the Sun publish his reports about the looting by missionaries and their followers, he felt that should they be printed that he would be:[26]

Chamberlin's report was subsequently published in the Christmas Eve 1900 edition of New York's The Sun newspaper.[27] Chamberlin reported:[28]

Chamberlin indicated in a letter to his wife dated 28 December 1900, that he had interviewed Ament that day about missionary looting, and that Ament believed he had done nothing for which he was ashamed. Chamberlin confided to his wife that:[29]

In a subsequent letter to his wife, dated 29 January 1901, Chamberlin indicates that:[30]

Mark Twain: "To the Person Sitting in Darkness" (February 1901)

Mark Twain was "an outspoken critic of American involvement in the Philippines and China",[31] and "one of the mammoth figures in anti-imperialism, and certainly the foremost anti-imperialist literary figure" of his days, having become in January 1901 a vice president of the Anti-Imperialist League of New York.[32]

Twain decided to use the Sun article as the basis of a sustained attack on both the missionary enterprise and its imperialist tendencies. "Twain lampooned missionary morality and likened it to questionable American activities in the Philippines".[33] According to Foner, Twain used the conduct of Ament to "drive home the point that the missionary movement served as a front for imperialism.[34] "Without any doubt 'To the Person Sitting in Darkness' is Twain's most famous anti-imperialist piece. The satire is incredibly dark and Twain does not hesitate to taunt those whom he considers to be immoral including McKinley as the "Master of the Game," the missionaries, and the trusts."[35] The title of the article is "an ironic reference to Matthew 4:16 — "The people who sat in darkness have seen a great light"", "and used by the Christian missionaries when referring to the "savage", "heathen", "uncivilized" populations of the lands the imperialists were conquering."[36] It was also a response the pro-imperialistic message in the poem The White Man's Burden written by Rudyard Kipling in response to the American annexation of the Philippines.F[37] The title was "a play upon the idea of western civilization being "enlightened"". Kipling had used the image when he wrote of:

In this article, Twain especially targeted Ament. According to Susan Harris:[38]

According to Twain biographer Albert Bigelow Paine:[39]

James Smylie somewhat whitewashed the controversy, saying, "Twain went after the respected Congregationalist minister, Reverend William Scott Ament, director of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Ament joined other powers in seeking indemnities from the Chinese after the Boxer Rebellion against western exploitation in 1900. Twain, perhaps unfairly, was shocked that Ament would use such blood money for the "propagation of the Gospel" and to promote the "blessings of civilization" to brothers and sisters who "sit in darkness." He summoned to missionaries: Come home and Christianize Christians in the states!"[40]

Reactions to the controversy

After its publication in The North American Review for February 1901, as the opening article, there was a huge controversy. This article "created a national sensation as well as a savage debate between Twain and the American Board of Foreign Missions; it is a masterful and satiric polemic condemning imperialism and the West for military intervention in China, South Africa, and the Philippines."[41] According to Paine:

After its magazine publication, the Anti-Imperialist League of New York published the essay as a pamphlet and seems to have distributed as many as 125,000 copies. However:[42]

Critics of Ament

The New York Times

On 26 January 1901, the editor of The New York Times, in an editorial entitled "Loot and Indemnity in China", after describing the "various unprovoked and unpunished acts of murder, arson, robbery and rape" by the Allied forces, attacked the missionaries in China as "the most vociferous plauditors of the operations, the most implacable demanders of Chinese blood" and indicated that "the accounts that have reached us have represented the missionaries as having been as active in the looting of Chinese property as they had been in instigating the promiscuous taking of Chinese lives."[43]

Ament was arrested by German and French troops near Tungchow, and charged with trying to extort money from the Chinese villagers.[44] On 5 February 1901, The New York Times reported that Ament had been arrested (along with two British subjects) on a charge of "endeavoring to extort money from the Chinese villagers" near Tungchow (now the Tongzhou District, Beijing). While the two British subjects were released, Ament was held pending an appeal to United States Minister Edwin H. Conger.[45] Two days later, The Times reported that Ament "had been arrested by French and German officers on the painful charge of blackmailing Chinese villages.... The charge has terrible plausibility. Apparently the only relevant answer the inculpated missionary could make to the charge is the ancient rejoinder "You're another," which the other doubtless was. But what a predicament for a missionary to be placed in with reference to avowed looters."[46]

The New York Times, in an editorial of 7 February 1901, echoed the previous criticisms of Ament: "The plain fact is that the ministers of the gospel of have been a disturbing factor in the Chinese situation." Quoting the opinion of then British Prime Minister, the Marquess of Salisbury, who indicated that "missionaries in general have been an international nuisance", The Times indicated that "the missionaries in China were showing a vindictiveness, in respect to the outrages and the situation which did not exactly comport with the Gospel they professed to be spreading." The Times concludes: "Upon the whole, it seems safe to say, that the Rev, Mr. Ament has missed his vocation, and that, for the particular function which incumbed on him, of propagating the Christian Gospel in foreign parts, he was not the most eligible person that could have been imagined or even secured."

Ament was subsequently released at the direction of the German military commander, Count Alfred von Waldersee.[47] [48] Wilbur Chamberlin, a reporter for the New York Sun, sent to China, reported in a letter dated 9 February 1901 to his wife:[49] Chamberlin indicated that the French and Germans, under pressure from the Americans, released him, insisting that he was never under arrest.

On 31 March 1901, the New York Times reported that the collection of "private indemnities" by Ament and others in China might disqualify them from any claim for payments when the United States government tendered its indemnity claims on China. It further indicated that the United States government could not make any claims for Chinese Christians as they were not American citizens, and that "Dr. Ament's recent complaint that the powers would do nothing in the way of collecting indemnity for these Christian Chinamen has not tended to raise the estimate of missionary intelligence among diplomats here [Washington D.C.]".[50]

Thomas F. Millard

Ardent anti-imperialist[51] American war correspondent Thomas Franklin Fairfax Millard (born 1868; died 8 September 1942 in Seattle, Washington),[52] [53] [54] [55] considered "the founding father of American journalism in China"[56] who later "probably has had a greater influence on contemporary newspaper journalism than any other American journalist in China",[57] [58] then a special correspondent for the New York Herald[59] in China since 1900, who also had his reports published in Britain's The Daily Mail, and American magazines including Scribner's Magazine and The Cosmopolitan, and the English-language Kobe Weekly Chronicle of Japan,[60] criticised Ament for his actions on the military expedition to San Ho in September 1900.[61] Millard charged in Scribner's Magazine that the allied insistence on revenge was criminal. "Seized with a vertigo of indiscriminating vengeance, the powers are trifling with the peace of the world. Events such as the months of September, October and November brought to China have carried war back to the Dark Ages, and will leave a taint in the moral atmosphere of the world for a generation to come".[62] Upon his return to the United States in January 1901, in response to a letter[63] urging the editor of The New York Times to retract his editorial of 26 January 1901 on "Loot and Indemnity in China", Millard wrote:[64]

Supporters of Ament attributed Millard's critique to prejudice. For example, ABCFM missionary George D. Wilder in writing to Rev. Judson Smith, secretary of the ABCFM, indicated:

One of Millard's protégés, Edgar Snow, described Millard's "anti-colonial, anti-imperialist, pro-independence, pro-equality of nations, pro-Republican, pro-self-determination and very pro-American [views.]."[65]

Other Critics

John Ames Mitchell wrote sarcastically in his Life magazine that "The Rev. Ament seems to be a good collector. When he gets out of his Chinese scrape he ought to be able to find a place in the Tammany police force.... Mark Twain had hung up the hide of the Reverend Ament, missionary in China."[66] Charles Fletcher Lummis, editor of The Land of Sunshine, agreed with Twain's assessment of the situation: "Dr. Ament, American missionary to China, who extorted from innocent paupers a manifold retribution in blood and money for the sins of the Boxers."[67]

In the eighth series of Ethical Addresses (1901), after referring to "Ament and his pious frauds", Ament's motivations are explored: "It is because the Rev. Mr. Ament loved his church and her temporal possessions more than ... ethical principles.... It is because men love their churches more than righteousness that iniquities done in the name of the church are condoned."[68] In the same publication, however, referring to Ament: "The truth of the matter is, that the missionary has been made the scapegoat by conspiring and corrupt native officials, and by immoral foreigners now in China and their ignorant brethren here in the United States."[69]

The Socialist Party of America supported Twain's attack on Ament and the other missionaries in an editorial in the 29 April 1901 edition of the Daily People by Daniel De Leon:[70]

Supporters of Ament

The reaction among the missionaries, and proponents of imperialism was swift and predictable. They charged Twain with treason. "Twain's caustic indictment generated, in turn, a defensive apologetics on the part of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Both Judson Smith and Gilbert Reid claimed that missionary looting was "high ethics," and added that American missionaries had only looted to provide money for the relief of Chinese Christians."

Judson Smith

Rev. Dr. Judson Smith (born 28 June 1837 in Middlefield, Massachusetts; died 29 June 1906 in Roxbury, Massachusetts), who had been one of Ament's professors at Oberlin College,[71] [72] the corresponding secretary of Ament's sponsoring mission (1884–1906), The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), in letters to both the New York Herald and Tribune in February 1901 denied the accuracy of the Sun clipping of 24 December 1900, indicating that the cable report had "grossly exaggerated" the amount of Mr. Ament's collections. Instead of thirteen times the indemnity it should have read "one and a third times" the indemnity. Further, Smith defended Ament, declaring that Ament had suffered in the Boxer Rebellion and that Twain's "brilliant article would produce an effect quite beyond the reach of plain argument", and that it would do an innocent man an injustice. Smith demanded an apology from Twain.[73] Replying in a letter to the New York Tribune, Twain insisted that Ament had arraigned himself.

Gilbert Reid

Rev. Gilbert Reid (born 29 November 1857; died 1927) (founder of the Mission among the Higher Classes in China (MHCC))[74] wrote an article entitled "The Ethics of Loot" in the July edition of Forum, in which he justified the motives and methods of the missionaries in collecting indemnities.[75]

North China Mission

At the end of January 1901 fourteen members of the North China Mission of the ABCFM endorsed the actions of Ament and Tewksbury: "Voted, That Dr. Ament and Mr. Tewksbury were justified in the following the advice of the United States Minister and selling the moveable property in the Tau-lu-po-fu and the Yu-wang-fu for the benefit of the distressed Chinese refugees and for the extraordinary expenses after the siege was raised...."[76]

Peking Missionary Society

On 21 March 1901, the Peking Missionary Association demanded Twain retract the statements he made attacking Ament in the February issue of The North American Review "concerning monies he collected from rural Chinese in payment for properties destroyed and people killed during the Boxer rebellion."[77] [78] The PMA secretary cabled the editor of The North American Review: "Peking Missionary Association demands public retraction. Mark Twain's gross libel against Ament utterly false. Secretary."[79]

Twain indicated that he could not comment for publication, but would respond in the April edition of The North American Review. His representative indicated: "He hopes that both the Peking Missionary Association and the American Board of Foreign Missions will like it, but he has his doubts."

George D. Wilder

George D. Wilder, an ABCFM colleague of Ament in China, wrote in a letter to Judson Smith on 25 March 1901:[80]

Boston Journal

Ament was not just defended by his colleagues or other Christian organisations. An editorial in the Boston Journal, entitled "A Humorist Astray", defends Ament:[81]

Henry Stimson

Prominent New York lawyer, and future United States Secretary of State, Henry Stimson, responding to a New York Times editorial criticising Ament and the other missionaries in China, wrote in a letter published in The Times on 21 March 1901:[82]

Edwin Conger

Edwin Hurd Conger (7 March 1843 – 18 May 1907), the United States Minister to China (1898–1905), consistently defended the actions of Ament and the other missionaries. For example, on 25 April 1901, The New York Times reprinted an interview with Conger, originally conducted in Kobe, Japan on 6 April 1901 while both men were en route to the United States. Conger defended the actions of Ament, indicating confiscated goods had been sold to ensure the survival of Chinese Christians.[83] Conger indicated that the missionaries "only appropriated their property for justifiable ends."[84]

On the same day a Boston newspaper reported: "Dr. Ament explains the sale of goods in the Mongol prince's house in which he took up his quarters by saying that those with him were without food and that he sold the goods on the advice of Mr. Conger. Had they not taken possession of the place it would have been destroyed by the Russians. The amount realized by the sale was devoted to the needs of the native Christians." The same despatch quoting from Mr. Conger says:[85]

Claude Maxwell MacDonald

Colonel Sir Claude Maxwell MacDonald (1852–1915), the chief British diplomat in Beijing during the Boxer Uprising, and the commander of the defence of the besieged foreign legations, also defended the missionaries:[86]

Charles Denby

Charles Harvey Denby (1830–1904), the United States Minister to China (1885–1898) in his posthumously published China and Her People (1905), supported Ament directly and criticised Twain implicitly: "The raid made on Doctor Ament some years ago is an example of how incautious people, who especially yearn to be funny, handle this subject.... Doctor Ament's conduct was in accordance with Chinese" customs.[87]

Newspaper Retractions

During the controversy, both The New York Times and the New York Sun issued corrections.

The New York Times

On 17 February 1901, The New York Times issued a retraction after receiving a different account of Ament's actions from Dr Judson Smith of the ABCFM, based on Ament's letter of 13 November 1900 to Smith. NYT reported that in Ament's own letter he indicated the compensation for the losses of the converts obtained by him had been "by appealing to the sense of justice among the villages where our people had lived." NYT concluded: "It seems that we have been led into doing an injustice to him.... In that case we have to express our sincere regret."[88]

New York Sun

On 5 March 1901, Wilbur Chamberlin, the journalist who started the controversy, telegraphed to the New York Sun the following, which appeared in that paper under the heading: "A Clean Bill for the Missionaries":[89] Also in March, the Sun printed an interview with Ament that indicated that the indemnity was not thirteen times the loss, but only one and one-third of the loss. Dr. Porter, Ament's biographer, a fellow missionary in Beijing, considered this an French: [[amende honorable]].[90]

"To My Missionary Critics" (April 1901)

Twain apparently "liked the attention he was getting and wrote to a correspondent that he was in "hot water with the clergy and other goody-goody people, but I am enjoying it more than I have ever enjoyed hot water before."[91] In response to an open letter from the ABCFM demanding an apology, Twain penned "To My Missionary Critics", which offered no apologies, although it ended by acknowledging that missionaries no doubt mean well. The essay, originally entitled "The Case of Rev. Dr. Ament, Missionary", was published in the North American Review in April 1901. According to Fitch, "To My Missionary Critics" (1901) recapitulates the charges mounted against Reverend William Ament in "To the Person Sitting in Darkness" and underscores Twain's contempt for the American-Christian missionaries' role in imperialism.

Twain explored the delicate moral difference between a demand thirteen times as great as it should be and a demand that was only one and a third times the correct amount. As Paine explains: "The point had been made by the board that it was the Chinese custom to make the inhabitants of a village responsible for individual crimes; and custom, likewise, to collect a third in excess of the damage, such surplus having been applied to the support of widows and orphans of the slain converts."

Focusing on the exaggerated indemnity, Twain said:

In this article, Twain offered some further illustrations, including the "Tale of a King and His Treasure" and another tale entitled "The Watermelons". Twain wrote:

Ament's Response

When Ament became aware of the criticism of his activities and the subsequent controversy, he was affected adversely. Ament admitted the strain in a letter to his wife on Sunday, 27 January 1901: "I am doing what I do not recall that I ever did before, remaining at home deliberately and missing all the services. I need the rest and felt that it was imperative. You see there is no let up for me. It is a constant strain from morning till night." Missionary colleague Nellie Naomi Russell (born 31 March 1862 in Ontonagon, Michigan; died 22 August 1911 in China) records:[92]

After Twain's initial article, ABCFM secretary Judson Smith wrote to Agent, and enquired as to the propriety of missionaries collecting indemnity; Ament and Tewksbury both replied that the Chinese themselves preferred this to being subjected to extortionate measures from local officials. Additionally, Ament and Tewksbury indicated that their activities had been approved by the other missionaries.[93] Ament indicated in a letter to his wife on 18 February 1901:[94]

Ament left Beijing on 26 March 1901 to return to the United States to make his case, clear his name and defend the reputation of the other missionaries.[95] On 1 April 1901, Ament, refusing to be a scapegoat in the affair, cabled the following to the ABCFM: "Nothing has been done except after consultation with colleagues and the full approval of the United States Minister. I will secure a certificate from Mr. [Edwin H.] Conger to that effect."[96]

On 30 March 1901, the New York Tribune, reported Ament's rationale for his actions:[97]

Ament arrived back in the United States on 25 April 1901. On the same day, The New York Times reprinted an interview with Ament, originally conducted in Kobe, Japan on 6 April 1901 while Ament was en route to the United States. In this article, Ament admitted:[98]

Ament only received $75 from the British Loot Committee. Previous to this, a sale of garments and curios was held, and the $400 netted was given to the American Board of Foreign Missions, "with which Dr. Ament is connected. Dr. Ament explained that from the sale of goods plundered from the Mongol Prince's house only $4000 was realized, and this was devoted to the needs of the native Christians."

In May 1901, Ament responded to his critics during a brief visit to the United States of America in 1901 prior to his return to China.[99] In response to the criticisms of Twain and others, Ament denied that the missionaries forced the Chinese to accept Christianity, and that: "We treat their beliefs kindly, try to extract the good, and never interfere with their customs, except where they interfere with Christianity."[100]

In response to Twain's specific allegations, Ament said:

On 16 May 1901, Ament addressing guests at the third annual Asiatic Society of America dinner in New York, again defended himself and his fellow missionaries:[101]

After Ament's death in January 1909, Judson Smith's successor, Dr. James Levi Barton(1855–1936), wrote in an obituary published in The Congregationalist:[102] The cruel and baseless attack made upon him [Ament] in this country by Mark Twain, in 1901, left a deep wound in his heart, in spite of the fact that it was clearly shown that his acts had been above criticism. He said one night, as we were sitting in a Chinese inn upon our way to Shansi, "I presume there are many in the United States who regard me as little better than a thief and a robber." I tried to assure him that no missionary was more honored than he, none more absolutely trusted, as it had been proven that the charges had no foundation in fact. He replied, "That is true, but do the people believe the proof, and will the truth ever catch up with the charge?"

Further responses

By the end of May 1901, ABCFM board secretary Judson Smith silenced Ament, as he believed further comments were damaging Ament and his colleagues. Smith attempted a final defence of Ament and the other missionaries in May in an essay entitled "The Missionaries and Their Critics".[103] [104]

Arthur Henderson Smith

"Somewhat at a disadvantage in this exchange, missionary leaders nevertheless attempted to influence opinion in treaty port China; Arthur Smith joined Reid and Judson Smith in writing letters to the North-China Herald justifying missionary actions and criticizing Twain." In a letter to the ABCFM, which was in part published in the 5 May 1901 edition of the New York Times, Arthur Henderson Smith, writing from Beijing, defends Ament:[105]

Smith, in his China in Convulsion (1901) indicated:[106]

Smith continued:

Assessment of Ament

"Twain had considerable popular support, and he did not budge from his positions, but forthrightly defended them in speeches and articles over the next several years." In a letter to his best friend, congregational clergyman Rev. Joseph Twichell, in June 1901, Twain was unrepentant, referring to:[107]

A recent biography portrays Ament in a sympathetic light but concludes that he was:[108]

Consequences

In October 1901, the Foreign Christian Missionary Society held Mark Twain's attack on Ament responsible for its decrease in income. However, E. E. Strong of Ament's own mission board, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, indicated that Twain's attacks actually helped the ABCFM financially:[109]

Sources and further reading

Articles

Contemporaneous (1877–1910)

Recent

Books

Contemporaneous (1877–1950)

Recent

Dissertations and Theses

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Martyred missionaries of the China Inland Mission, with a record of the perils & sufferings of some who escaped. 1901.
  2. Book: Broomhall, Marshall . Marshall Broomhall . 1901 . Martyred Missionaries of the China Inland Mission; With a Record of the Perils and Sufferings of Some Who Escaped . Broomhall martyred . Morgan and Scott . London . 0-8370-6027-3.
  3. Bickers & Tiedemann, Boxers, xv.
  4. Paul Hattaway, China's Christian Martyrs (Oxford, UKm and Grand Rapids, Michigan: Monarch, 2007):196–210
  5. Luella Miner, China's Book of Martyrs: A Record of Heroic Martyrdoms and Marvelous Deliverances of Chinese Christians During the Summer of 1900, (Jennings and Pye, 1903): 240.
  6. Robert Hart; John King Fairbank; Katherine Frost Bruner; Elizabeth MacLeod Matheson; and James Duncan Campbell, The I. G. in Peking: Letters of Robert Hart, Chinese Maritime Customs, 1868–1907 (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975): 879.
  7. Porter, 189.
  8. William Scott Ament, Letter to Mary P. Ament, quoted in Porter, 191–192.
  9. Porter, 197.
  10. W. S. Ament to Mary Ament, 20 August 1900, quoted in Porter, 197.
  11. Wong, 29.
  12. Wong, 30–31.
  13. W. S. Ament to M. P. Ament, 25 August 1900, quoted in Porter 198.
  14. Porter, 199.
  15. [William H. Brackney]
  16. Book: Oggel, L. Terry . J. R. . LeMaster . James D. . Wilson . The Routledge Encyclopedia of Mark Twain . 13 May 2013 . Routledge . 978-1-135-88128-3 . 23.
  17. Martha Emily Parmelee Rose, The Western Reserve of Ohio and Some of Its Pioneers, Places and Women's Clubs, National American Woman Suffrage Association Collection (Library of Congress) (Euclid Print. Co., 1914): 133.
  18. W. S. Ament to M. P. Ament, 18 September 1900, in Porter, 207.
  19. W. S. Ament to M. P. Ament, 1 January 1901; quoted in Porter, 219.
  20. Cited in S.C. Miller, "Ends and Means: Missionary Justification of Force in Nineteenth Century China," in The Missionary Enterprise, 276.
  21. W. S. Ament to Judson Smith, 13 November 1900; quoted in Porter, 233.
  22. Porter, 226.
  23. William Scott Ament, Letter (27 September 1900); quoted in Porter, 241–242.
  24. W. S. Ament to Judson Smith, 27 December 1900, quoted in Porter, p. 230.
  25. Chamberlin, Ordered, 97–98.
  26. Chamberlin, letter to his wife, 11 December 1900, in Chamberlin, Ordered, 190.
  27. Robert A. Bickers and R. G. Tiedemann, The Boxers, China, and the World (Rowman & Littlefield, 2007): 104)., .
  28. The New York Sun (24 December 1900), quoted by Mark Twain, "The Person Sitting in Darkness", The North American Review 172 (February 1901). http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/GENERAL/twain/personsitting.htm
  29. Chamberlin, Ordered, 212–213.
  30. Chamberlin, Ordered, 241.
  31. Maverick Marvin Harris, "China", 142, in The Mark Twain Encyclopedia.
  32. Everett H. Emerson, Mark Twain: A Literary Life (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000):257.
  33. Bickers & Tiedemann, Boxers, 104.
  34. Philip Sheldon Foner, Mark Twain: Social Critic (International Publishers, 1958): 280.
  35. http://www.antiimperialist.com/webroot/PEOPLEdocuments/Membership/Literature.html Literature and Anti-Imperialism
  36. Web site: Mark Twain and the Onset of the Imperialist Period Imperialist Period . 2022-10-06 . www.internationalist.org.
  37. Web site: The White Man's Burden and the Person Sitting in Darkness . 2008-12-22 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081015222147/http://www.assumption.edu/users/mcclymer/His130/P-H/burden/default.html . 15 October 2008.
  38. Harris.
  39. Web site: Albert Bigelow Paine, Mark Twain: A Biography, Chapter 214 . 17 December 2008 . 14 December 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20081214131940/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/t/twain/mark/paine/chapter214.html . dead .
  40. Smylie, page 10.
  41. J. C. B. Kinch, "Europe and Elsewhere", The Mark Twain Encyclopedia, 261.
  42. Web site: Mark Twain and the Onset of the Imperialist Period Imperialist Period . 2022-10-06 . www.internationalist.org.
  43. "Loot and Indemnity in China", The New York Times (26 January 1901):8; https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/01/26/102429033.pdf
  44. J. A. Mitchell, Life (1901): 154.
  45. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/05/118460836.pdf "A Missionary Arrested", The New York Times (5 February 1900):5
  46. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/07/117954646.pdf "Our Missionaries in China", New York Times (7 February 1901):8
  47. "Mr. Ament Still in Custody: But a Dispatch to London Says Count von Waldersee Has Ordered His Release." New York Times (6 February 1901):6.https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9A0DE7DE103DEE32A25755C0A9649C946097D6CF
  48. Porter, 221.
  49. Chamberlin, Ordered, 253–254.
  50. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/03/31/102439622.pdf "Missionaries' Indemnities", New York Times (31 March 1901)
  51. John Maxwell Hamilton, Edgar Snow: A Biography (LSU Press, 2003):xvi.
  52. News: TrM . Special to qzw No . 1942-09-09 . T. F. MILLARD DE; EXPERT Olq; (HIN, / War Correspondent, Adviser to the Chinese at Versailles, Geneva and Washington FOUNDED SHANGHAI PAPERS Wrote for The Herald, World, Scribner's and Times Here-Began Career in St. Louis . en-US . The New York Times . 2022-10-06 . 0362-4331.
  53. Mitchel P. Roth and James Stuart Olson, eds., Historical Dictionary of War Journalism (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997):203–204).
  54. Missouri newspaperman. First went to China for New York Herald to cover Boxer uprising in 1900. Later correspondent, The New York Times, and editor, English-language newspaper in China, 1900–1932. Founder of China Weekly Review (Shanghai). Stephen R. MacKinnon and Oris Friesen, eds., China Reporting: An Oral History of American Journalism in the 1930s and 1940s (Berkeley: University of California Press, c1987):xxii; 1987. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft1s2004h3; http://www.escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft1s2004h3&chunk.id=d0e85&toc.depth=1&toc.id=&brand=ucpress;query=millard#1
  55. Larson . Jane Leung . Articulating China's First Mass Movement: Kang Youwei, Liang Qichao, the Baohuanghui, and the 1905 Anti-American Boycott . Twentieth-Century China . 2007 . 33 . 1 . 4–26 . 10.1179/tcc.2007.33.1.4 . .
  56. Mordechai Rozanski in MacKinnon and Friesen, 23.
  57. J.B. Powell, "The Journalistic Field", in American University Men in China 1936; quoted in "Yankee Journalists in old China" (19 February 2008); Web site: Yankee Journalists in old China . 2009-04-02 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080601094439/http://www.historic-shanghai.com/?p=52 . 1 June 2008. . Retrieved 2 April 2009. Millard later founded and edited The China Press in 1911, and from 1917 founded Millard's Review of the Far East (In June 1923 renamed The China Weekly Review) and edited by J. B. Powell).
  58. Hamilton . John Maxwell . 1986 . The Missouri News Monopoly and American Altruism in China: Thomas F.F. Millard, J. B. Powell, and Edgar Snow . Pacific Historical Review . 55 . 1 . 27–48 . 10.2307/3639111 . 3639111 .
  59. You Li, "The Military Versus the Press: Japanese Military Controls Over One U.S. Journalist, John B. Powell, in Shanghai During the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1941", a thesis presented to the faculty of the graduate school at the University of Missouri in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts (December 2008): 35.; http://edt.missouri.edu/Fall2008/Thesis/LiY-121208-T11732/research.pdf
  60. "STARTS A PAPER IN SHANGHAI: Thomas F. Millard of St. Louis to be Editor of The Press", The New York Times (30 August 1911):6; https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1911/08/30/104873840.pdf. Retrieved 2 April 2009.
  61. George D. Wilder, letter to Dr. Judson Smith (7 May 1901) from Tientsin, China; quoted in The Wilders of North China, Part 2: 1901–1904, Volume III of The Wilder-Stanley Saga, comp. & ed. Donald Wilder Menzi, pp. 27–28.; http://reced.org/dmenzi/wilders/Wilderlets_1901-1904.pdf. Retrieved 2 April 2009.
  62. Thomas F. Millard, "Punishment and Revenge in China." Scribner's Magazine 29 (1901):187- 194; quoted in James Louis Hevia, English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century China (Duke University Press, 2003):238–239.
  63. Arthur D. Berry, "Missionaries in China" (26 January 1901), The New York Times (29 January 1901):8; https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/01/29/101068650.pdf. Retrieved 3 April 2009.
  64. Thomas F. Millard, letter to the Editor, 31 January 1901, from 235 East 19th Street, New York; The New York February 1901):18; https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/03/105758000.pdf (accessed 2 April 2009).
  65. Edgar Snow, Journey to the Beginning (New York: Random House, 1958):31.
  66. J. A. Mitchell, Life 37 (1901): 184.
  67. Charles Fletcher Lummis, The Land of Sunshine 14 (F. A. Pattee, 1901): 237.
  68. Frederic Harrison, "The Religion of Duty", Ethical Addresses, Volume 8. American Ethical Union. (S. Burns Weston, 1901):92–93.
  69. Ethical Addresses, Volume 8. American Ethical Union. (S. Burns Weston, 1901):35.
  70. Daniel De Leon, "Mark Twain on Missionaries." Daily People 1:303 (29 April 1901):1. online: http://www.slp.org/pdf/de_leon/eds1901/apr29b_1901.pdf
  71. General Council of the Congregational and Christian Churches of the United States, The Year Book of the Congregational Christian Churches of the United States of America (General Council of the Congregational and Christian Churches of the United States Executive Committee, 1907):38.
  72. Daniel Coit Gilman; Harry Thurston Peck; and Frank Moore Colby, eds. The New International Encyclopæeia Volume 18 (Dodd, Mead and company, 1909):261.
  73. The Mark Twain Encyclopedia, 23.
  74. Ralph R. Covell, "Gilbert Reid", http://www.bdcconline.net/en/stories/r/reid-gilbert.php
  75. Tsou Mingteh, "Christian Missionary as Confucian Intellectual: Gilbert Reid (1857–1927) and the Reform Movement in the Late Qing", in Christianity in China, ed. Daniel H. Bays (Stanford University Press, 1999): 73–90.
  76. "Action of Missionaries Indorsed", The New York Times (22 March 1901): 6.
  77. Web site: Missions history: What happened on this date in March? . 2022-10-06 . home.snu.edu.
  78. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/03/22/105759809.pdf "Demand That Twain Retract", The New York Times (22 March 1901):16
  79. Quoted in Porter, 236.
  80. George D. Wilder, Letter to Judson Smith (25 March 1901) from Tientsen, China; The Wilders of North China, Part 2: 1901–1904, Volume III of The Wilder-Stanley Saga, comp. & ed. Donald Wilder Menzi, page 19.; http://reced.org/dmenzi/wilders/Wilderlets_1901-1904.pdf (accessed 2 April 2009).
  81. "A Humorist Astray", Boston Journal; quoted in Porter, 236–237.
  82. "The Missionaries: They Will Still Go On". Letter to the Editor of the New York Times, from Henry Stimson, 21 March 1901, published New York Times (24 March 1901).
  83. "The Missionaries Defended: Interviews in Japan with Minister Conger and Dr. Ament: Goods Sold to Succor Native Christians." Kobe Herald (24 April 1901). Reprinted in The New York Times (25 April 1901):2. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/04/25/117962216.pdf
  84. A History of the Precious Metals from the Earliest Times to the Present, 358.
  85. Edwin Conger, quoted in Porter, 242.
  86. Claude Maxwell MacDonald, quoted in Porter, 244.
  87. Charles Denby, China and Her People, 217–218.
  88. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/02/17/101069439.pdf Editorial, The New York Times (17 February 1901)
  89. "A Clean Bill for Missionaries", Sun (March 1901); quoted in Porter, 236.
  90. POrter, 236.
  91. Emerson, 258.
  92. Nellie Naomi Russell, quoted in Porter 210.
  93. Young, The Rhetoric of Empire, 193–194.
  94. Porter, 222.
  95. The Current Encyclopedia: A Monthly Record of Human Progress. Volume 1. (Modern Research Society, 1901):37.
  96. William Ament, cable to ABCFM, 1 April 1901, in The Open Court: Devoted to the Science of Religion, the Religion of Science, and the Extension of the Religious Parliament Idea by Paul Carus (The Open Court Pub. Co., 1901):329.
  97. Ament, quoted in Porter, 251–252.
  98. A History of the Precious Metals from the Earliest Times to the Present, 355.
  99. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/05/10/117963898.pdf "Dr. Ament Answers Critics", The New York Times (10 May 1901)
  100. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/05/10/117963898.pdf The New York Times (10 May 1901)
  101. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/05/17/101073256.pdf "The Asiastic Society Honors Mr. Conger"
  102. J.L. Barton, "A Loss to Both China and America", The Congregationalist (1909); quoted in Porter, 365.
  103. See Judson Smith, "The Missionaries and their Critics," North American Review 172 (May 1901).
  104. Oggel, 23.
  105. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/05/06/117963386.pdf Defends Dr. Ament's Course, 5 May 1901
  106. Arthur Henderson Smith, China in Convulsion, (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1901):730–732. https://archive.org/stream/chinainconvulsio02smituoft/chinainconvulsio02smituoft_djvu.txt
  107. Mark Twain, quoted in William E. Phipps, Mark Twain's Religion (Mercer University Press, 2003): 212.
  108. Thompson, Larry Clinton. William Scott Ament: Heroism, Hubris, and the Ideal Missionary. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2009, pp. 2, 214
  109. "Twain's Attack on Missions", Special to The New York Times (16 October 1901):9; https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1901/10/16/119082326.pdf.

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