| Turkish | |
| Nativename: | Turkish: Türkçe (noun, adverb) Turkish: Türk dili (noun) |
| Pronunciation: | Turkish: Türkçe in Turkish pronounced as /ˈtyɾctʃe/ Turkish: Türk dili in Turkish pronounced as /ˈtyɾc ˈdili/ |
| Ethnicity: | Turks |
| Speakers: | L1 million |
| Date: | 2006 |
| Ref: | e27 |
| Speakers2: | L2 million (2019) |
| Speakers Label: | Speakers |
| Familycolor: | Altaic |
| Fam1: | Turkic |
| Fam2: | Common Turkic |
| Fam3: | Oghuz |
| Fam4: | Western Oghuz |
| Ancestor: | Old Anatolian Turkish |
| Ancestor2: | Ottoman Turkish |
| Stand1: | Istanbul Turkish |
| Dia1: | Cypriot Turkish |
| Dia2: | Iraqi Turkmen |
| Dia3: | Karamanli Turkish |
| Dia4: | Meskhetian Turkish |
| Dia5: | Rumelian Turkish |
| Dia6: | Syrian Turkish[1] |
| Script: | Latin (Turkish alphabet) Turkish Braille |
| Nation: | Cyprus Northern Cyprus Turkey |
| Minority: | Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia[2] Greece Iraq[3] [4] Kosovo North Macedonia Romania |
| Iso1: | tr |
| Iso2: | tur |
| Iso3: | tur |
| Lingua: | part of 44-AAB-a |
| Map: | Map of Turkish Language.svg |
| Notice: | IPA |
| Glotto: | nucl1301 |
| Glottorefname: | Turkish |
| Agency: | Turkish Language Association |
Turkish (Turkish: Türkçe in Turkish pronounced as /ˈtyɾctʃe/, Turkish: Türk dili also Turkish: Türkiye Türkçesi 'Turkish of Turkey'[5]) is the most widely spoken of the Turkic languages, with around 90 to 100 million speakers. It is the national language of Turkey and Cyprus. Significant smaller groups of Turkish speakers also exist in Germany, Austria, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Greece,, other parts of Europe, the South Caucasus, and some parts of Central Asia, Iraq, and Syria. Turkish is the 18th most spoken language in the world.
To the west, the influence of Ottoman Turkish—the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire—spread as the Ottoman Empire expanded. In 1928, as one of Atatürk's reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Perso-Arabic script-based Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with the Latin script-based Turkish alphabet.
Some distinctive characteristics of the Turkish language are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination. The basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no noun classes or grammatical gender. The language makes usage of honorifics and has a strong T–V distinction which distinguishes varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a single person out of respect.
See main article: Turkic languages. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of the Turkic family. Other members include Azerbaijani, spoken in Azerbaijan and north-west Iran, Gagauz of Gagauzia, Qashqai of south Iran and the Turkmen of Turkmenistan.[6]
Historically the Turkic family was seen as a branch of the larger Altaic family, including Japanese, Korean, Mongolian and Tungusic, with various other language families proposed for inclusion by linguists.[7]
Altaic theory has fallen out of favour since the 1960s, and a majority of linguists now consider Turkic languages to be unrelated to any other language family, though the Altaic hypothesis still has a small degree of support from individual linguists. The nineteenth-century Ural-Altaic theory, which grouped Turkish with Finnish, Hungarian and Altaic languages, is considered even less plausible in light of Altaic's rejection.[8] The theory was based mostly on the fact these languages share three features: agglutination, vowel harmony and lack of grammatical gender.
See also: Turkish people. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia. Erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the Second Turkic Khaganate (dated 682–744 CE).[9] After the discovery and excavation of these monuments and associated stone slabs by Russian archaeologists in the wider area surrounding the Orkhon Valley between 1889 and 1893, it became established that the language on the inscriptions was the Old Turkic language written using the Old Turkic alphabet, which has also been referred to as "Turkic runes" or "runiform" due to a superficial similarity to the Germanic runic alphabets.[10]
With the Turkic expansion during Early Middle Ages (–11th centuries), peoples speaking Turkic languages spread across Central Asia, covering a vast geographical region stretching from Siberia all the way to Europe and the Mediterranean. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, Oghuz—the direct ancestor of today's Turkish language—into Anatolia during the 11th century.[11] Also during the 11th century, an early linguist of the Turkic languages, Mahmud al-Kashgari from the Kara-Khanid Khanate, published the first comprehensive Turkic language dictionary and map of the geographical distribution of Turkic speakers in the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk (Arabic: ديوان لغات الترك).[12]
See main article: Ottoman Turkish.
See also: Old Anatolian Turkish. Following the adoption of Islam around the year 950 by the Kara-Khanid Khanate and the Seljuq Turks, who are both regarded as the ethnic and cultural ancestors of the Ottomans, the administrative language of these states acquired a large collection of loanwords from Arabic and Persian. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was heavily influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters and a great quantity of imported words. The literary and official language during the Ottoman Empire period (–1922) is termed Ottoman Turkish, which was a mixture of Turkish, Persian, and Arabic that differed considerably and was largely unintelligible to the period's everyday Turkish. The everyday Turkish, known as kaba Türkçe or "vulgar Turkish", spoken by the less-educated lower and also rural members of society, contained a higher percentage of native vocabulary and served as basis for the modern Turkish language.[13]
While visiting the region between Adıyaman and Adana, Evliya Çelebi recorded the "Turkman language" and compared it with his own Turkish:
| Comparison of 17th-century Southern Anatolian Turkman, 17th-century elite, and modern standard Turkish dialects[14] | |||||||
| Turkman language | Ottoman Turkish | Modern Turkish | English | Turkman language | Ottoman Turkish | Modern Turkish | English |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| yalvaç | peygamber | peygamber | prophet | fakı | imâm | imam | |
| yüce Çalap | Âli Allah | yüce Allah | mighty God | eyne | câmi | cami | mosque |
| mezgit | mescid | mescit | mosque | gümeç, lavâşa, pişi | ekmek | ekmek, lavaş, pişi | bread, lavash, boortsog |
| kekremsi | şarâb | şarap | wine | Kancarıdaydın? | Nerede idin? | Neredeydin? | Where were you? |
| Kancarı yılıgan be? | Nereye gidersin bire? | Nereye gidersin bre? | Where are you going? | Muhıdı geyen mi? | Ferâce giyermisin? | Ferace giyer misin? | Will you wear ferace? |
| Bargım yavıncıdı. | Karnım ağrıdı. | Karnım ağrıdı. | My stomach hurt. | şarıkdı | şehirli oldu | Şehirli oldu. | They became urban. |
See main article: Turkish language reform.
See also: Turkish alphabet reform and Replacement of loanwords in Turkish. After the foundation of the modern state of Turkey and the script reform, the Turkish Language Association (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a language reform to replace loanwords of Arabic and Persian origin with Turkish equivalents. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred foreign words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, it also opted for reviving Old Turkish words which had not been used for centuries. In 1935, the TDK published a bilingual Ottoman-Turkish/Pure Turkish dictionary that documents the results of the language reform.[15]
Owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the older terms of Arabic or Persian origin, the younger generations favor new expressions. It is considered particularly ironic that Atatürk himself, in his lengthy speech to the new Parliament in 1927, used the formal style of Ottoman Turkish that had been common at the time amongst statesmen and the educated strata of society in the setting of formal speeches and documents. After the language reform, the Turkish education system discontinued the teaching of literary form of Ottoman Turkish and the speaking and writing ability of society atrophied to the point that, in later years, Turkish society would perceive the speech to be so alien to listeners that it had to be "translated" three times into modern Turkish: first in 1963, again in 1986, and most recently in 1995.
The past few decades have seen the continuing work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language, mostly from English. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance. However, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as Turkish: bölem to replace Turkish: fırka, "political party"—also failed to meet with popular approval (Turkish: fırka has been replaced by the French loanword Turkish: parti). Some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings; for example Turkish: betik (originally meaning "book") is now used to mean "script" in computer science.[16]
Some examples of modern Turkish words and the old loanwords are:
| align=left | Ottoman Turkish | align=left | Modern Turkish | align=left | English translation | align=left | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turkish, Ottoman (1500-1928);: مثلث|script=Arab (Turkish: müselles) | Turkish: üçgen | triangle | Compound of the noun Turkish: üç ("three") and the suffix Turkish: -gen | ||||
| Turkish, Ottoman (1500-1928);: طیاره|scrip=Arab (Turkish: tayyare) | Turkish: uçak | aeroplane | Derived from the verb Turkish: uçmak ("to fly"). The word was first proposed to mean "airport". | ||||
| Turkish, Ottoman (1500-1928);: نسبت|script=Arab (Turkish: nispet) | Turkish: oran | ratio | The old word is still used in the language today together with the new one. The modern word is from the Old Turkic verb or- ("to cut"). | ||||
| Turkish, Ottoman (1500-1928);: شمال|script=Arab (Turkish: şimal) | Turkish: kuzey | north | Derived from the Old Turkic noun kuz ("cold and dark place", "shadow"). The word is restored from Middle Turkic usage.[17] | ||||
| Turkish, Ottoman (1500-1928);: تشرینِ اول| (Turkish: teşrinievvel) | Turkish: ekim | October | The noun Turkish: ekim means "sowing", referring to the planting of cereal seeds in autumn, which is widespread in Turkey |
See main article: List of replaced loanwords in Turkish.
See also: Turkish diaspora. Turkish is natively spoken by the Turkish people in Turkey and by the Turkish diaspora in some 30 other countries. The Turkish language is mutually intelligible with Azerbaijani. In particular, Turkish-speaking minorities exist in countries that formerly (in whole or part) belonged to the Ottoman Empire, such as Iraq, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Greece (primarily in Western Thrace), the Republic of North Macedonia, Romania, and Serbia. More than two million Turkish speakers live in Germany; and there are significant Turkish-speaking communities in the United States, France, the Netherlands, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Due to the cultural assimilation of Turkish immigrants in host countries, not all ethnic members of the diaspora speak the language with native fluency.
In 2005 93% of the population of Turkey were native speakers of Turkish,[18] about 67 million at the time, with Kurdish languages making up most of the remainder.
Azerbaijani language, official in Azerbaijan, is mutually intelligible with Turkish and speakers of both languages can understand them without noticeable difficulty, especially when discussion comes on ordinary, daily language. Turkey has very good relations with Azerbaijan, with a multitude of Turkish companies and authorities investing there, while the influence of Turkey in the country is very high. The rising presence of this very similar language in Azerbaijan and the fact that many children use Turkish words instead of Azerbaijani words due to satellite TV has caused concern that the distinctive features of the language will be eroded. Many bookstores sell books in Turkish language along Azerbaijani language ones, with Agalar Mahmadov, a leading intellectual, voicing his concern that Turkish language has "already started to take over the national and natural dialects of Azerbaijan". However, the presence of Turkish as foreign language is not as high as Russian.[19] In Uzbekistan, the second most populated Turkic country, a new TV channel Foreign Languages TV was established in 2022. This channel has been broadcasting Turkish lessons along with English, French, German and Russian lessons.
Turkish is the official language of Turkey and is one of the official languages of Cyprus. Turkish has official status in 38 municipalities in Kosovo, including Mamusha,, two in the Republic of North Macedonia and in Kirkuk Governorate in Iraq.[20] Cyprus has requested the European Union to add Turkish as an official language, as it is one of the two official languages of the country.
In Turkey, the regulatory body for Turkish is the Turkish Language Association (Türk Dil Kurumu or TDK), which was founded in 1932 under the name Türk Dili Tetkik Cemiyeti ("Society for Research on the Turkish Language"). The Turkish Language Association was influenced by the ideology of linguistic purism: indeed one of its primary tasks was the replacement of loanwords and of foreign grammatical constructions with equivalents of Turkish origin. These changes, together with the adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, shaped the modern Turkish language spoken today. The TDK became an independent body in 1951, with the lifting of the requirement that it should be presided over by the Minister of Education. This status continued until August 1983, when it was again made into a governmental body in the constitution of 1982, following the military coup d'état of 1980.[21]
See main article: Turkish dialects. Modern standard Turkish is based on the dialect of Istanbul.[22] This Istanbul Turkish (İstanbul Türkçesi) constitutes the model of written and spoken Turkish, as recommended by Ziya Gökalp, Ömer Seyfettin and others.[23]
Dialectal variation persists, in spite of the levelling influence of the standard used in mass media and in the Turkish education system since the 1930s. Academic researchers from Turkey often refer to Turkish dialects as ağız or şive, leading to an ambiguity with the linguistic concept of accent, which is also covered with these words. Several universities, as well as a dedicated work-group of the Turkish Language Association, carry out projects investigating Turkish dialects. work continued on the compilation and publication of their research as a comprehensive dialect-atlas of the Turkish language.[24] [25] Although the Ottoman alphabet, being slightly more phonetically ambiguous than the Latin script, encoded for many of the dialectal variations between Turkish dialects, the modern Latin script fails to do this. Examples of this are the presence of the nasal velar sound [ŋ] in certain eastern dialects of Turkish which was represented by the Ottoman letter /ڭ/ but that was merged into /n/ in the Latin script. Additionally are letters such as /خ/, /ق/, /غ/ which make the sounds [ɣ], [q], and [x], respectively in certain eastern dialects but that are merged into [g], [k], and [h] in western dialects and are therefore defectively represented in the Latin alphabet for speakers of eastern dialects.
Some immigrants to Turkey from Rumelia speak Rumelian Turkish, which includes the distinct dialects of Ludogorie, Dinler, and Adakale, which show the influence of the theorized Balkan sprachbund. Kıbrıs Türkçesi is the name for Cypriot Turkish and is spoken by the Turkish Cypriots. Edirne is the dialect of Edirne. Ege is spoken in the Aegean region, with its usage extending to Antalya. The nomadic Yörüks of the Mediterranean Region of Turkey also have their own dialect of Turkish.[26] This group is not to be confused with the Yuruk nomads of Macedonia, Greece, and European Turkey, who speak Balkan Gagauz Turkish.
The Meskhetian Turks who live in Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Russia as well as in several Central Asian countries, also speak an Eastern Anatolian dialect of Turkish, originating in the areas of Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin and sharing similarities with Azerbaijani, the language of Azerbaijan.
The Central Anatolia Region speaks Orta Anadolu. Karadeniz, spoken in the Eastern Black Sea Region and represented primarily by the Trabzon dialect, exhibits substratum influence from Greek in phonology and syntax;[27] it is also known as Laz dialect (not to be confused with the Laz language). Kastamonu is spoken in Kastamonu and its surrounding areas. Karamanli Turkish is spoken in Greece, where it is called Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Kαραμανλήδικα. It is the literary standard for the Karamanlides.[28]
See main article: Turkish phonology.
| Nasal | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | (pronounced as /link/) | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | (pronounced as /link/) | pronounced as /link/ | ||||
| Fricative | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||||
| pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||||||
| Approximant | (pronounced as /link/) | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | (pronounced as /link/) | ||||
| Tap | pronounced as /link/ | |||||||
At least one source claims Turkish consonants are laryngeally-specified three-way fortis-lenis (aspirated/neutral/voiced) like Armenian.[29]
The phoneme that is usually referred to as yumuşak g ("soft g"), written (ğ) in Turkish orthography, represents a vowel sequence or a rather weak bilabial approximant between rounded vowels, a weak palatal approximant between unrounded front vowels, and a vowel sequence elsewhere. It never occurs at the beginning of a word or a syllable, but always follows a vowel. When word-final or preceding another consonant, it lengthens the preceding vowel.
In native Turkic words, the sounds pronounced as /[c]/, pronounced as /[ɟ]/, and pronounced as /[l]/ are mainly in complementary distribution with pronounced as /[k]/, pronounced as /[ɡ]/, and pronounced as /[ɫ]/; the former set occurs adjacent to front vowels and the latter adjacent to back vowels. The distribution of these phonemes is often unpredictable, however, in foreign borrowings and proper nouns. In such words, pronounced as /[c]/, pronounced as /[ɟ]/, and pronounced as /[l]/ often occur with back vowels: some examples are given below. However, there are minimal pairs that distinguish between these sounds, such as kar [kɑɾ] "snow" vs kâr [cɑɾ] "profit".
See main article: Final-obstruent devoicing. Turkish orthography reflects final-obstruent devoicing, a form of consonant mutation whereby a voiced obstruent, such as pronounced as //b d dʒ ɡ//, is devoiced to pronounced as /[p t tʃ k]/ at the end of a word or before a consonant, but retains its voicing before a vowel. In loan words, the voiced equivalent of /k/ is /g/; in native words, it is /ğ/.[30] [31]
| Underlying consonant | Devoiced form | Underlying form | Dictionary form | Dative case / 1sg present | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| b | p |
| kitap | kitaba | book (loan) | |
| c | ç |
| uç | uca | tip | |
| d | t |
| but | buda | thigh | |
| g | k |
| renk | renge | color (loan) | |
| ğ | k |
| ekmek | ekmeğe | bread |
This is analogous to languages such as German and Russian, but in the case of Turkish it only applies, as the above examples demonstrate, to stops and affricates, not to fricatives. The spelling is usually made to match the sound. However, in a few cases, such as ad 'name' (dative ada), the underlying form is retained in the spelling (cf. at 'horse', dative ata). Other exceptions are od 'fire' vs. ot 'herb', sac 'sheet metal', saç 'hair'. Most loanwords, such as kitap above, are spelled as pronounced, but a few such as hac 'hajj', şad 'happy', and yad 'strange' or 'stranger' also show their underlying forms.
Native nouns of two or more syllables that end in /k/ in dictionary form are nearly all /ğ/ in underlying form. However, most verbs and monosyllabic nouns are underlyingly /k/.
The vowels of the Turkish language are, in their alphabetical order, (a), (e), (ı), (i), (o), (ö), (u), (ü). The Turkish vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by how and where they are articulated focusing on three key features: front and back, rounded and unrounded and vowel height.[32] Vowels are classified [±back], [±round] and [±high].[33]
The only diphthongs in the language are found in loanwords and may be categorised as falling diphthongs usually analyzed as a sequence of /j/ and a vowel.
| Turkish Vowel Harmony | Front Vowels | Back Vowels | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unrounded | Rounded | Unrounded | Rounded | ||||||
| Vowel | e pronounced as /link/ | i pronounced as /link/ | ü pronounced as /link/ | ö pronounced as /link/ | a pronounced as /link/ | ı pronounced as /link/ | u pronounced as /link/ | o pronounced as /link/ | |
| Twofold (Backness) | e | a | |||||||
| Fourfold (Backness + Rounding) | i | ü | ı | u | |||||
The principle of vowel harmony, which permeates Turkish word-formation and suffixation, is due to the natural human tendency towards economy of muscular effort.[34] This principle is expressed in Turkish through three rules:
The second and third rules minimize muscular effort during speech. More specifically, they are related to the phenomenon of labial assimilation:[36] if the lips are rounded (a process that requires muscular effort) for the first vowel they may stay rounded for subsequent vowels.[35] If they are unrounded for the first vowel, the speaker does not make the additional muscular effort to round them subsequently.[34]
Grammatical affixes have "a chameleon-like quality",[37] and obey one of the following patterns of vowel harmony:
Practically, the twofold pattern (also referred to as the e-type vowel harmony) means that in the environment where the vowel in the word stem is formed in the front of the mouth, the suffix will take the e-form, while if it is formed in the back it will take the a-form. The fourfold pattern (also called the i-type) accounts for rounding as well as for front/back.[38] The following examples, based on the copula -dir4 ("[it] is"), illustrate the principles of i-type vowel harmony in practice: Türkiye'
These are four word-classes that are exceptions to the rules of vowel harmony:
| Invariable suffix | Turkish example | Meaning in English | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| –daş | Turkish: meslektaş | "colleague" | From Turkish: meslek "profession." |
| –yor | Turkish: geliyor | "he/she/it is coming" | From Turkish: gel– "to come." |
| –ane | Turkish: şahane | "regal" | From Turkish: şah, "king." |
| –ken | Turkish: uyurken | "while sleeping" | From Turkish: uyu–, "to sleep." |
| –leyin | Turkish: sabahleyin | "in the morning" | From Turkish: sabah, "morning." |
| –imtırak | Turkish: ekşimtırak | "sourish" | From Turkish: ekşi, "sour." |
| –ki | Turkish: ormandaki | "(that) in the forest" | From Turkish: orman, "forest." |
| –gil | Turkish: annemgiller | "my mother's family" | From Turkish: annem, "my mother." |
| –gen | Turkish: altıgen | "hexagon" | From Turkish: altı, "six." |
The road sign in the photograph above illustrates several of these features:
The rules of vowel harmony may vary by regional dialect. The dialect of Turkish spoken in the Trabzon region of northeastern Turkey follows the reduced vowel harmony of Old Anatolian Turkish, with the additional complication of two missing vowels (ü and ı), thus there is no palatal harmony. It is likely that elün meant "your hand" in Old Anatolian. While the 2nd person singular possessive would vary between back and front vowel, -ün or -un, as in elün for "your hand" and kitabun for "your book", the lack of ü vowel in the Trabzon dialect means -un would be used in both of these cases — elun and kitabun.[40]
With the exceptions stated below, Turkish words are oxytone (accented on the last syllable).
| Enclitic suffix | Turkish example | Meaning in English |
|---|---|---|
| –le | Turkish: memnuniyétle | with pleasure |
| –ken | Turkish: yazárken | while writing |
| –ce | Turkish: hayváncasına | bestially |
| –leyin | Turkish: gecéleyin | by night |
| –me | Turkish: anlamádı | he/she/it did not understand |
| –yor | Turkish: gelı̇́yor | he/she/it is coming |
| Enclitic suffix | Turkish example | Meaning in English |
|---|---|---|
| ol- as a separate word | Turkish: arkadaşím idi | he/she was my friend |
| ol- as a suffix | Turkish: arkadaşímdı | he/she was my friend |
| mi | Turkish: anlamadí mı | did he/she not understand? |
| gibi | Turkish: sizı̇́n gibi | like you |
| için | Turkish: benı̇́m için | for me |
| ki | Turkish: diyorlár ki ólmıyacak | they are saying that it won't happen |
| de | Turkish: biz de | us too |
Turkish has two groups of sentences: verbal and nominal sentences. In the case of a verbal sentence, the predicate is a finite verb, while the predicate in nominal sentence will have either no overt verb or a verb in the form of the copula Turkish: ol or Turkish: y (variants of "be"). Examples of both are given below:[41]
| Sentence type | Turkish | English | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subject | Predicate | |||
| Verbal | Necla | Turkish: okula gitti | Necla went to school | |
| Nominal (no verb) | Necla | Turkish: öğretmen | Necla is a teacher | |
| (copula) | Necla | Turkish: ev-de-'''y'''-miş (hyphens delineate suffixes) | Apparently Necla is/was at home | |
The two groups of sentences have different ways of forming negation. A nominal sentence can be negated with the addition of the word Turkish: değil. For example, the sentence above would become Turkish: Necla öğretmen değil ('Necla is not a teacher'). However, the verbal sentence requires the addition of a negative suffix Turkish: -me to the verb (the suffix comes after the stem but before the tense): Turkish: Necla okula gitmedi ('Necla did not go to school').[42]
In the case of a verbal sentence, an interrogative clitic Turkish: mi is added after the verb and stands alone, for example Turkish: Necla okula gitti mi? ('Did Necla go to school?'). In the case of a nominal sentence, then Turkish: mi comes after the predicate but before the personal ending, so for example Turkish: Necla, siz öğretmen misiniz? ('Necla, are you [formal, plural] a teacher?').
Word order in simple Turkish sentences is generally subject–object–verb, as in Korean and Latin, but unlike English, for verbal sentences and subject-predicate for nominal sentences. However, as Turkish possesses a case-marking system, and most grammatical relations are shown using morphological markers, often the SOV structure has diminished relevance and may vary. The SOV structure may thus be considered a "pragmatic word order" of language, one that does not rely on word order for grammatical purposes.[43]
Consider the following simple sentence which demonstrates that the focus in Turkish is on the element that immediately precedes the verb:[44]
| Word order | width=50% | Example | width=50% | Focus |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| SOV | unmarked | |||
| SVO | the focus is on the subject: Ahmet (it was Ahmet who ate the egg) | |||
| OVS | the focus is on the object: egg (it was an egg that Ahmet ate) |
The postpredicate position signifies what is referred to as background information in Turkish — information that is assumed to be known to both the speaker and the listener, or information that is included in the context. Consider the following examples:
| Sentence type | Word order | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominal | S-predicate | Turkish: Bu ev güzelmiş (apparently this house is beautiful) | unmarked | |
| Predicate-s | Turkish: Güzelmiş bu ev (it is apparently beautiful, this house) | it is understood that the sentence is about this house | ||
| Verbal | SOV | Turkish: Bana da bir kahve getir (get me a coffee too) | unmarked | |
| Turkish: Bana da getir bir kahve (get me one too, a coffee) | it is understood that it is a coffee that the speaker wants |
There has been some debate among linguists whether Turkish is a subject-prominent (like English) or topic-prominent (like Japanese and Korean) language, with recent scholarship implying that it is indeed both subject and topic-prominent.[45] This has direct implications for word order as it is possible for the subject to be included in the verb-phrase in Turkish. There can be S/O inversion in sentences where the topic is of greater importance than the subject.
See main article: Turkish grammar.
Turkish is an agglutinative language and frequently uses affixes, and specifically suffixes, or endings. One word can have many affixes and these can also be used to create new words, such as creating a verb from a noun, or a noun from a verbal root (see the section on Word formation). Most affixes indicate the grammatical function of the word.The only native prefixes are alliterative intensifying syllables used with adjectives or adverbs: for example sımsıcak ("boiling hot" < sıcak) and masmavi ("bright blue" < mavi).
The extensive use of affixes can give rise to long words, e.g. Çekoslovakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmışsınızcasına, meaning "In the manner of you being one of those that we apparently couldn't manage to convert to Czechoslovakian". While this case is contrived, long words frequently occur in normal Turkish, as in this heading of a newspaper obituary column: Bayramlaşamadıklarımız (Bayram [festival]-Recipr-Impot-Partic-Plur-PossPl1; "Those of our number with whom we cannot exchange the season's greetings"). Another example can be seen in the final word of this heading of the online Turkish Spelling Guide (İmlâ Kılavuzu): Dilde birlik, ulusal birliğin vazgeçilemezlerindendir ("Unity in language is among the indispensables [dispense-Pass-Impot-Plur-PossS3-Abl-Copula] of national unity ~ Linguistic unity is a sine qua non of national unity").[46]
Turkish does not have grammatical gender and the sex of persons do not affect the forms of words. The third-person pronoun Turkish: o may refer to "he", "she" or "it." Despite this lack, Turkish still has ways of indicating gender in nouns:
There is no definite article in Turkish, but definiteness of the object is implied when the accusative ending is used (see below). Turkish nouns decline by taking case endings. There are six noun cases in Turkish, with all the endings following vowel harmony (shown in the table using the shorthand superscript notation). Since the postposition Turkish: ile often gets suffixed onto the noun, some analyze it as an instrumental case, although in formal speech it takes the genitive with personal pronouns, singular demonstratives, and interrogative Turkish: kim. The plural marker Turkish: -ler ² immediately follows the noun before any case or other affixes (e.g. Turkish: köylerin "of the villages").
| Case | Ending | Examples | Meaning | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Turkish: köy "village" | Turkish: ağaç "tree" | ||||
| Nominative | ∅ (none) | Turkish: köy | Turkish: ağaç | (the) village/tree | |
| Accusative | Turkish: -i 4 | Turkish: köyü | Turkish: ağa'''c'''ı | the village/tree | |
| Genitive | Turkish: -in 4 | Turkish: köyün | Turkish: ağa'''c'''ın | the village's/tree's of the village/tree | |
| Dative | Turkish: -e ² | Turkish: köye | Turkish: ağa'''c'''a | to the village/tree | |
| Locative | Turkish: -de ² | Turkish: köyde | Turkish: ağaç'''t'''a | in/on/at the village/tree | |
| Ablative | Turkish: -den ² | Turkish: köyden | Turkish: ağaç'''t'''an | from the village/tree | |
| Instrumental | Turkish: -le ² | Turkish: köyle | Turkish: ağaçla | with the village/tree | |
The accusative case marker is used only for definite objects; compare Turkish: (bir) ağaç gördük "we saw a tree" with Turkish: ağacı gördük "we saw the tree". The plural marker Turkish: -ler ² is generally not used when a class or category is meant: Turkish: ağaç gördük can equally well mean "we saw trees [as we walked through the forest]"—as opposed to Turkish: ağaçları gördük "we saw the trees [in question]".
The declension of Turkish: ağaç illustrates two important features of Turkish phonology: consonant assimilation in suffixes (Turkish: ağaç'''t'''an, ağaç'''t'''a) and voicing of final consonants before vowels (Turkish: ağa'''c'''ın, ağa'''c'''a, ağa'''c'''ı).
Additionally, nouns can take suffixes that assign person: for example Turkish: -imiz 4, "our". With the addition of the copula (for example Turkish: -im 4, "I am") complete sentences can be formed. The interrogative particle Turkish: mi 4 immediately follows the word being questioned, and also follows vowel harmony: Turkish: köye mi? "[going] to the village?", Turkish: ağaç mı? "[is it a] tree?".
| Turkish | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Turkish: ev | (the) house | |
| Turkish: evler | (the) houses | |
| Turkish: evin | your (sing.) house | |
| Turkish: eviniz | your (pl./formal) house | |
| Turkish: evim | my house | |
| Turkish: evimde | at my house | |
| Turkish: evlerinizin | of your houses | |
| Turkish: evlerinizden | from your houses | |
| Turkish: evlerinizdendi | (he/she/it) was from your houses | |
| Turkish: evlerinizdenmiş | (he/she/it) was (apparently/said to be) from your houses | |
| Turkish: Evinizdeyim. | I am at your house. | |
| Turkish: Evinizdeymişim. | I was (apparently) at your house. | |
| Turkish: Evinizde miyim? | Am I at your house? |
The Turkish personal pronouns in the nominative case are Turkish: ben (1s), Turkish: sen (2s), Turkish: o (3s), Turkish: biz (1pl), Turkish: siz (2pl, or 2h), and Turkish: onlar (3pl). They are declined regularly with some exceptions: Turkish: benim (1s gen.); Turkish: bizim (1pl gen.); Turkish: bana (1s dat.); Turkish: sana (2s dat.); and the oblique forms of Turkish: o use the root Turkish: on. As mentioned before, all demonstrative singular and personal pronouns take the genitive when Turkish: ile is affixed onto it: Turkish: benimle (1s ins.), Turkish: bizimle (1pl ins.); but Turkish: on'''un'''la (3s ins.), Turkish: onlarla (3pl ins.). All other pronouns (reflexive Turkish: kendi and so on) are declined regularly.
Two nouns, or groups of nouns, may be joined in either of two ways:
The following table illustrates these principles.[47] In some cases the constituents of the compounds are themselves compounds; for clarity these subsidiary compounds are marked with [square brackets]. The suffixes involved in the linking are underlined. If the second noun group already had a possessive suffix (because it is a compound by itself), no further suffix is added.
| Definite (possessive) | Indefinite (qualifier) | Complement | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| kimsenin | yanıtı | nobody's answer | ||
| "kimse" | yanıtı | the answer "nobody" | ||
| Atatürk'ün | evi | Atatürk's house | ||
| Atatürk | Bulvarı | Atatürk Boulevard (named after, not belonging to Atatürk) | ||
| Orhan'ın | adı | Orhan's name | ||
| "Orhan" | adı | the name "Orhan" | ||
| r | sessizi | the consonant r | ||
| [''r sessizi'']nin | söylenişi | pronunciation of the consonant r | ||
| Türk | [''Dil Kurumu''] | Turkish language-association | ||
| [''Türk Dili''] | Dergisi | Turkish-language magazine | ||
| Ford | [''aile arabası''] | Ford family car | ||
| Ford'un | [''aile arabası''] | (Mr) Ford's family car | ||
| [''Ford ailesi'']nin | arabası | the Ford family's car | ||
| Ankara | [''Kız Lisesi''] | Ankara Girls' School | ||
| [''yıl sonu''] | sınavları | year-end examinations | ||
| Bulgaristan'ın | [''İstanbul Başkonsolosluğu''] | the Istanbul Consulate-General of Bulgaria (located in Istanbul, but belonging to Bulgaria) | ||
| [[''İstanbul Üniversitesi''] [''Edebiyat Fakültesi''] ] | [[''Türk Edebiyatı''] Profesörü] | Professor of Turkish Literature in the Faculty of Literature of the University of Istanbul | ||
| ne oldum | delisi | "what-have-I-become!" madman = parvenu who gives himself airs |
As the last example shows, the qualifying expression may be a substantival sentence rather than a noun or noun group.
There is a third way of linking the nouns where both nouns take no suffixes (takısız tamlama). However, in this case the first noun acts as an adjective,[48] e.g. Demir kapı (iron gate), elma yanak ("apple cheek", i.e. red cheek), kömür göz ("coal eye", i.e. black eye) :
Turkish adjectives are not declined. However most adjectives can also be used as nouns, in which case they are declined: e.g. Turkish: güzel ("beautiful") → Turkish: güzeller ("(the) beautiful ones / people"). Used attributively, adjectives precede the nouns they modify. The adjectives Turkish: var ("existent") and Turkish: yok ("non-existent") are used in many cases where English would use "there is" or "have", e.g. Turkish: süt yok ("there is no milk", lit. "(the) milk (is) non-existent"); the construction "noun 1-GEN noun 2-POSS Turkish: var/yok" can be translated "noun 1 has/doesn't have noun 2"; Turkish: imparatorun elbisesi yok "the emperor has no clothes" ("(the) emperor-of clothes-his non-existent"); Turkish: kedimin ayakkabıları yoktu ("my cat had no shoes", lit. "cat-my-of shoe-plur.-its non-existent-past tense").
See also: Turkish copula. Turkish verbs indicate person. They can be made negative, potential ("can"), or non-potential ("cannot"). Furthermore, Turkish verbs show tense (present, past, future, and aorist), mood (conditional, imperative, inferential, necessitative, and optative), and aspect. The inferential suffix -miş4 is also glossed as a direct evidential[49] or a mirative.[50] Negation is expressed by the suffix -me²- immediately following the stem.
| Turkish | English | |
|---|---|---|
| Turkish: gel- | (to) come | |
| Turkish: gelebil- | (to) be able to come | |
| Turkish: gelme- | not (to) come | |
| Turkish: geleme- | (to) be unable to come | |
| Turkish: gelememiş | Apparently (s)he couldn't come | |
| Turkish: gelebilecek | (s)he'll be able to come | |
| Turkish: gelmeyebilir | (s)he may (possibly) not come | |
| Turkish: gelebilirsen | if you can come | |
| Turkish: gelinir | (passive) one comes, people come | |
| Turkish: gelebilmeliydin | you should have been able to come | |
| Turkish: gelebilseydin | if you could have come | |
| Turkish: gelmeliydin | you should have come |
(For the sake of simplicity the term "tense" is used here throughout, although for some forms "aspect" or "mood" might be more appropriate.) There are 9 simple and 20 compound tenses in Turkish. 9 simple tenses are simple past (Turkish: di'li geçmiş), inferential past (Turkish: miş'li geçmiş), present continuous, simple present (aorist), future, optative, subjunctive, necessitative ("must") and imperative.[51] There are three groups of compound forms. Story (Turkish: hikaye) is the witnessed past of the above forms (except command), rumor (Turkish: rivayet) is the unwitnessed past of the above forms (except simple past and command), conditional (Turkish: koşul) is the conditional form of the first five basic tenses.[52] In the example below the second person singular of the verb Turkish: gitmek ("go"), stem Turkish: gid-/git-, is shown.
| English of the basic form | Basic tense | Story (Turkish: hikâye) | Rumor (Turkish: rivayet) | Condition (Turkish: koşul) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| you went | Turkish: gittin | Turkish: gittiydin | – | Turkish: gittiysen | |
| you have gone | Turkish: gitmişsin | Turkish: gitmiştin | Turkish: gitmişmişsin | Turkish: gitmişsen | |
| you are going | Turkish: gidiyorsun | Turkish: gidiyordun | Turkish: gidiyormuşsun | Turkish: gidiyorsan | |
| you (are wont to) go | Turkish: gidersin | Turkish: giderdin | Turkish: gidermişsin | Turkish: gidersen | |
| you will go | Turkish: gideceksin | Turkish: gidecektin | Turkish: gidecekmişsin | Turkish: gideceksen | |
| if only you go | Turkish: gitsen | Turkish: gitseydin | Turkish: gitseymişsin | – | |
| may you go | Turkish: gidesin | Turkish: gideydin | Turkish: gideymişsin | – | |
| you must go | Turkish: gitmelisin | Turkish: gitmeliydin | Turkish: gitmeliymişsin | – | |
| go! (imperative) | Turkish: git | – | – | – |
There are also so-called combined verbs, which are created by suffixing certain verb stems (like Turkish: bil or Turkish: ver) to the original stem of a verb. Turkish: Bil is the suffix for the sufficiency mood. It is the equivalent of the English auxiliary verbs "able to", "can" or "may". Turkish: Ver is the suffix for the swiftness mood, Turkish: kal for the perpetuity mood and Turkish: yaz for the approach ("almost") mood.[53] Thus, while Turkish: gittin means "you went", Turkish: gidebildin means "you could go" and Turkish: gidiverdin means "you went swiftly". The tenses of the combined verbs are formed the same way as for simple verbs.
Turkish verbs have attributive forms, including present, similar to the English present participle (with the ending 2); future (2); indirect/inferential past (4); and aorist (2 or 4).
The most important function of some of these attributive verbs is to form modifying phrases equivalent to the relative clauses found in most European languages. The subject of the verb in an 2 form is (possibly implicitly) in the third person (he/she/it/they); this form, when used in a modifying phrase, does not change according to number. The other attributive forms used in these constructions are the future (2) and an older form (4), which covers both present and past meanings. These two forms take "personal endings", which have the same form as the possessive suffixes but indicate the person and possibly number of the subject of the attributive verb; for example, yediğim means "what I eat", yediğin means "what you eat", and so on. The use of these "personal or relative participles" is illustrated in the following table, in which the examples are presented according to the grammatical case which would be seen in the equivalent English relative clause.
| English equivalent | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Case of relative pronoun | Pronoun | ||
| Nominative | who, which/that | ||
| Genitive | whose (nom.) | ||
| whose (acc.) | |||
| at whose | |||
| of which | |||
| of which | |||
| Remaining cases (incl. prepositions) | whom, which | ||
| from which | |||
| on which | |||
| which + subordinate clause | |||
See main article: Turkish vocabulary. Latest 2011 edition of Güncel Türkçe Sözlük (Current Turkish Dictionary), the official dictionary of the Turkish language published by Turkish Language Association, contains 117,000 vocabularies and 93,000 articles.[54] [55]
Turkish extensively uses agglutination to form new words from nouns and verbal stems. The majority of Turkish words originate from the application of derivative suffixes to a relatively small set of core vocabulary.[56]
Turkish obeys certain principles when it comes to suffixation. Most suffixes in Turkish will have more than one form, depending on the vowels and consonants in the root- vowel harmony rules will apply; consonant-initial suffixes will follow the voiced/ voiceless character of the consonant in the final unit of the root; and in the case of vowel-initial suffixes an additional consonant may be inserted if the root ends in a vowel, or the suffix may lose its initial vowel. There is also a prescribed order of affixation of suffixes- as a rule of thumb, derivative suffixes precede inflectional suffixes which are followed by clitics, as can be seen in the example set of words derived from a substantive root below:
| Turkish | Components | English | Word class | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| göz | göz | eye | Noun | |
| gözlük | göz + -lük | eyeglasses | Noun | |
| gözlükçü | göz + -lük + -çü | optician | Noun | |
| gözlükçülük | göz + -lük + -çü + -lük | optician's trade | Noun | |
| gözlem | göz + -lem | observation | Noun | |
| gözlemci | göz + -lem + -ci | observer | Noun | |
| gözle- | göz + -le | observe | Verb (order) | |
| gözlemek | göz + -le + -mek | to observe | Verb (infinitive) | |
| gözetlemek | göz + -et + -le + -mek | to peep | Verb (infinitive) |
Another example, starting from a verbal root:
| Turkish | Components | English | Word class | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| yat- | yat- | lie down | Verb (order) | |
| yatmak | yat-mak | to lie down | Verb (infinitive) | |
| yatık | yat- + -(ı)k | leaning | Adjective | |
| yatak | yat- + -ak | bed, place to sleep | Noun | |
| yatay | yat- + -ay | horizontal | Adjective | |
| yatkın | yat- + -gın | inclined to; stale (from lying too long) | Adjective | |
| yatır- | yat- + -(ı)r- | lay down | Verb (order) | |
| yatırmak | yat- + -(ı)r-mak | to lay down something/someone | Verb (infinitive) | |
| yatırım | yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m | laying down; deposit, investment | Noun | |
| yatırımcı | yat- + -(ı)r- + -(ı)m + -cı | depositor, investor | Noun |
New words are also frequently formed by compounding two existing words into a new one, as in German. Compounds can be of two types- bare and Turkish: (s)I. The bare compounds, both nouns and adjectives are effectively two words juxtaposed without the addition of suffixes for example the word for girlfriend Turkish: kızarkadaş (Turkish: kız+arkadaş) or black pepper Turkish: karabiber (Turkish: kara+biber). A few examples of compound words are given below:
| Turkish | English | Constituent words | Literal meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| pazartesi | Monday | pazar ("Sunday") and ertesi ("after") | after Sunday | |
| bilgisayar | computer | bilgi ("information") and say- ("to count") | information counter | |
| gökdelen | skyscraper | gök ("sky") and del- ("to pierce") | sky piercer | |
| başparmak | thumb | baş ("prime") and parmak ("finger") | primary finger | |
| önyargı | prejudice | ön ("before") and yargı ("splitting; judgement") | fore-judging |
| Turkish | English | Constituent words | Possessive Suffix | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| el çantası | handbag | el (hand) and çanta (bag) | +sı | |
| masa örtüsü | tablecloth | masa (table) and örtü (cover) | +sü | |
| çay bardağı | tea glass | çay (tea) and bardak (glass) | +ı (the k changes to ğ) |
See main article: Turkish alphabet and Turkish Braille.
Turkish is written using a version of Latin script introduced in 1928 by Atatürk to replace the Ottoman Turkish alphabet, a version of Perso-Arabic script. The Ottoman alphabet marked only three different vowels—long ā, ū and ī—and included several redundant consonants, such as variants of z (which were distinguished in Arabic but not in Turkish). The omission of short vowels in the Arabic script was claimed to make it particularly unsuitable for Turkish, which has eight vowels.
The reform of the script was an important step in the cultural reforms of the period. The task of preparing the new alphabet and selecting the necessary modifications for sounds specific to Turkish was entrusted to a Language Commission composed of prominent linguists, academics, and writers. The introduction of the new Turkish alphabet was supported by public education centers opened throughout the country, cooperation with publishing companies, and encouragement by Atatürk himself, who toured the country teaching the new letters to the public.[57] As a result, there was a dramatic increase in literacy from its original, pre-modern levels.[58]
The Latin alphabet was applied to the Turkish language for educational purposes even before the 20th-century reform. Instances include a 1635 Latin-Albanian dictionary by Frang Bardhi, who also incorporated several sayings in the Turkish language, as an appendix to his work (e.g. alma agatsdan irak duschamas—"An apple does not fall far from its tree").
Turkish now has an alphabet suited to the sounds of the language: the spelling is largely phonemic, with one letter corresponding to each phoneme.[59] Most of the letters are used approximately as in English, the main exceptions being (c), which denotes pronounced as /[dʒ]/ ((j) being used for the pronounced as /[ʒ]/ found in Persian and European loans); and the undotted (ı), representing pronounced as /[ɯ]/. As in German, (ö) and (ü) represent pronounced as /[ø]/ and pronounced as /[y]/. The letter (ğ), in principle, denotes pronounced as /[ɣ]/ but has the property of lengthening the preceding vowel and assimilating any subsequent vowel. The letters (ş) and (ç) represent pronounced as /[ʃ]/ and pronounced as /[tʃ]/, respectively. A circumflex is written over back vowels following (k) and (g) when these consonants represent pronounced as /[c]/ and pronounced as /[ɟ]/—almost exclusively in Arabic and Persian loans.[47]
The Turkish alphabet consists of 29 letters (q, w, x omitted and ç, ş, ğ, ı, ö, ü added); the complete list is:
a, b, c, ç, d, e, f, g, ğ, h, ı, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, ö, p, r, s, ş, t, u, ü, v, y, and z (Capital of i is İ and lowercase I is ı.)
The specifically Turkish letters and spellings described above are illustrated in this table:
| Turkish spelling | Pronunciation | Meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Turkish: [[Cağaloğlu]] | pronounced as /ˈdʒaːɫoːɫu/ | [İstanbul district] | |
| Turkish: çalıştığı | pronounced as /tʃaɫɯʃtɯː/ | where/that (s)he works/worked | |
| Turkish: müjde | pronounced as /myʒˈde/ | good news | |
| Turkish: lazım | pronounced as /laːˈzɯm/ | necessary | |
| Turkish: mahkûm | pronounced as /mahˈcum/ | condemned |
Dostlar Beni Hatırlasın by Âşık Veysel Şatıroğlu (1894–1973), an ashik and highly regarded poet in the Turkish folk literature tradition.
| Orthography | IPA | Translation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Turkish: Ben giderim adım kalır | pronounced as /bæn ɟid̪e̞ɾim äd̪ɯm käɫɯɾ/ | I depart, my name remains | |
| Turkish: Dostlar beni hatırlasın | pronounced as /d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn/ | May friends remember me | |
| Turkish: Düğün olur bayram gelir | pronounced as /d̪yjyn o̞ɫuɾ bäjɾäm ɟe̞liɾ/ | There are weddings, there are feasts | |
| Turkish: Dostlar beni hatırlasın | pronounced as /d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn/ | May friends remember me | |
| Turkish: Can kafeste durmaz uçar | pronounced as /d͡ʒäŋ käfe̞st̪e̞ d̪uɾmäz ut͡ʃäɾ/ | The soul won't stay caged, it flies away | |
| Turkish: Dünya bir han konan göçer | pronounced as /d̪ynjä biɾ häŋ ko̞nän ɟø̞t͡ʃæɾ/ | The world is an inn, residents depart | |
| Turkish: Ay dolanır yıllar geçer | pronounced as /äj d̪o̞ɫänɯɾ jɯɫːäɾ ɟe̞t͡ʃæɾ/ | The moon wanders, years pass by | |
| Turkish: Dostlar beni hatırlasın | pronounced as /d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn/ | May friends remember me | |
| Turkish: Can bedenden ayrılacak | pronounced as /d͡ʒän be̞d̪ænd̪æn äjɾɯɫäd͡ʒäk/ | The soul will leave the body | |
| Turkish: Tütmez baca yanmaz ocak | pronounced as /t̪yt̪mæz bäd͡ʒä jänmäz o̞d͡ʒäk/ | The chimney won't smoke, furnace won't burn | |
| Turkish: Selam olsun kucak kucak | pronounced as /se̞läːm o̞ɫsuŋ kud͡ʒäk kud͡ʒäk/ | Goodbye goodbye to you all | |
| Turkish: Dostlar beni hatırlasın | pronounced as /d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn/ | May friends remember me | |
| Turkish: Açar solar türlü çiçek | pronounced as /ät͡ʃäɾ so̞läɾ t̪yɾly t͡ʃit͡ʃe̞c/ | Various flowers bloom and fade | |
| Turkish: Kimler gülmüş kim gülecek | pronounced as /cimlæɾ ɟylmyʃ cim ɟyle̞d͡ʒe̞c/ | Someone laughed, someone will laugh | |
| Turkish: Murat yalan ölüm gerçek | pronounced as /muɾät jäɫän ø̞lym ɟæɾt͡ʃe̞c/ | Wishes are lies, death is real | |
| Turkish: Dostlar beni hatırlasın | pronounced as /d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn/ | May friends remember me | |
| Turkish: Gün ikindi akşam olur | pronounced as /ɟyn icindi äkʃäm o̞ɫuɾ/ | Morning and afternoon turn to night | |
| Turkish: Gör ki başa neler gelir | pronounced as /ɟø̞ɾ ci bäʃä ne̞læɾ ɟe̞liɾ/ | And many things happen to a person anyway | |
| Turkish: Veysel gider adı kalır | pronounced as /ʋe̞jsæl ɟidæɾ äd̪ɯ käɫɯɾ/ | Veysel departs, his name remains | |
| Turkish: Dostlar beni hatırlasın | pronounced as /d̪o̞st̪ɫäɾ be̞ni hätɯɾɫäsɯn/ | May friends remember me |
Turkish language uses two standardised keyboard layouts, known as Turkish Q (QWERTY) and Turkish F, with Turkish Q being the most common.
On-line sources