Turkic languages explained

Turkic
Region:	Eurasia
Familycolor:	Altaic
Protoname:	Proto-Turkic
Family:	One of the world's primary language families
Child1:	Common Turkic
Child2:	Oghuric
Iso5:	trk
Glotto:	turk1311
Glottorefname:	Turkic
Map:	Turkic Languages distribution map.png
Mapcaption:	The distribution of the Turkic languages
Ethnicity:	Turkic peoples
Date:	2020

The Turkic languages are a language family of more than 35^[1] documented languages, spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe to Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia (Siberia), and West Asia. The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning from Mongolia to Northwest China, where Proto-Turkic is thought to have been spoken,^[2] from where they expanded to Central Asia and farther west during the first millennium.^[3] They are characterized as a dialect continuum.^[4]

Turkic languages are spoken by some 200 million people.^[5] The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans; its native speakers account for about 38% of all Turkic speakers, followed by Uzbek.^[3]

Characteristic features such as vowel harmony, agglutination, subject-object-verb order, and lack of grammatical gender, are almost universal within the Turkic family.^[3] There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility, upon moderate exposure, among the various Oghuz languages, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Chaharmahali Turkic, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish, as well as Oghuz-influenced Crimean Tatar.^[6] Other Turkic languages demonstrate varying amounts of mutual intelligibility within their subgroups as well. Although methods of classification vary, the Turkic languages are usually considered to be divided into two branches: Oghur, the only surviving member of which is Chuvash, and Common Turkic, which includes all other Turkic languages.

Turkic languages show many similarities with the Mongolic, Tungusic, Koreanic, and Japonic languages. These similarities have led some linguists (including Talât Tekin) to propose an Altaic language family, though this proposal is widely rejected by historical linguists.^{[7] [8]} Similarities with the Uralic languages even caused these families to be regarded as one for a long time under the Ural-Altaic hypothesis.^{[9] [10] [11]} However, there has not been sufficient evidence to conclude the existence of either of these macrofamilies. The shared characteristics between the languages are attributed presently to extensive prehistoric language contact.

Characteristics

See also: Altaic languages.

Turkic languages are null-subject languages, have vowel harmony (with the notable exception of Uzbek due to strong Persian-Tajik influence), converbs, extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and postpositions, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes, and grammatical gender. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family. In terms of the level of vowel harmony in the Turkic language family, Tuvan is characterized as almost fully harmonic whereas Uzbek is the least harmonic or not harmonic at all. Taking into account the documented historico-linguistic development of Turkic languages overall, both inscriptional and textual, the family provides over one millennium of documented stages as well as scenarios in the linguistic evolution of vowel harmony which, in turn, demonstrates harmony evolution along a confidently definable trajectory^[12] Though vowel harmony is a common characteristic of major language families spoken in Inner Eurasia (Mongolic, Tungusic, Uralic and Turkic), the type of harmony found in them differs from each other, specifically, Uralic and Turkic have a shared type of vowel harmony (called palatal vowel harmony) whereas Mongolic and Tungusic represent a different type.

History

See also: Proto-Turkic language, Old Turkic, Turkic peoples and Turkic migration.

Pre-history

The homeland of the Turkic peoples and their language is suggested to be somewhere between the Transcaspian steppe and Northeastern Asia (Manchuria),^[13] with genetic evidence pointing to the region near South Siberia and Mongolia as the "Inner Asian Homeland" of the Turkic ethnicity.^[14] Similarly several linguists, including Juha Janhunen, Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs, suggest that modern-day Mongolia is the homeland of the early Turkic language.^[15] Relying on Proto-Turkic lexical items about the climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence, Turkologist Peter Benjamin Golden locates the Proto-Turkic Urheimat in the southern, taiga-steppe zone of the Sayan-Altay region.^[16]

Extensive contact took place between Proto-Turks and Proto-Mongols approximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the two Eurasian nomadic groups is called the "Turco-Mongol" tradition. The two groups shared a similar religion system, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages. Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary.^[17]

Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider it an independent Chuvash family similar to Uralic and Turkic languages. Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for the classification purposes.^[18]

Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and the nearby Tungusic and Mongolic families, as well as the Korean and Japonic families has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as the Northeast Asian sprachbund. A more recent (circa first millennium BC) contact between "core Altaic" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic.

Turkic languages also show some Chinese loanwords that point to early contact during the time of Proto-Turkic.^[19]

Early written records

The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century AD Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The Compendium of the Turkic Dialects (Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The Compendium is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family.^[20]

The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries AD) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, debatably the parent or a distant relative of Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD.^{[21] [22]}

Geographical expansion and development

With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, from Siberia to the Mediterranean. Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Urdu, Ukrainian, Russian,^[23] Chinese, Mongolian, Hungarian and to a lesser extent, Arabic.^[24]

The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia since the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West.^[25] (See picture in the box on the right above.)

For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages.^[26]

This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922).

The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches:^[27]

• Turkic
  • Common Turkic
    • Oghuz Turkic (Southwestern)
    • Kipchak Turkic (Northwestern)
    • Karluk Turkic (Southeastern)
    • Siberian Turkic (Northeastern)
    • Arghu Turkic
  • Oghur Turkic

In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have diverged.^[28]

With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as West Turkic, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak, and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as East Turkic.^[29]

Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.

Hruschka, et al. (2014)^[30] use computational phylogenetic methods to calculate a tree of Turkic based on phonological sound changes.

Schema

The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages:^{[31] [27]}

• Rhotacism (or in some views, zetacism), e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" *tokkuz. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhotacism refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/,*-/k/,*-/kh/ in this branch.^[32] See Antonov and Jacques (2012)^[33] on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic.
• Intervocalic *d, e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" *hadaq
• Suffix-final -G, e.g. in the suffix *lIG, in e.g. *tāglïg

Additional isoglosses include:

• Preservation of word initial *h, e.g. in the word for "foot" *hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language.
• Denasalisation of palatal *ń, e.g. in the word for "moon", *āń

isogloss	Old Turkic	Turkish	Turkmen	Azerbaijani	Qashqai	Uzbek	Uyghur	Tatar	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Altay	Western Yugur	Fu-yü Gyrgys	Khakas	Tuvan	Sakha/Yakut	Khalaj	Chuvash
z/r (nine)	toquz	dokuz	dokuz	doqquz	doqquz	toʻqqiz	toqquz	tuɣïz	toğyz	toɣuz	toɣus	dohghus	doɣus	toɣïs	tos	toɣus	toqquz	tăχăr
h- (foot)	adaq	ayak	aýak	ayaq	ayaq	oyoq	ayaq	ayaq	aiaq	ayaq	ayaq	azaq	azïχ	azaχ	adaq	ataχ	hadaq	ura
VdV (foot)	adaq	ayak	aýak	ayaq	ayaq	oyoq	ayaq	ayaq	aiaq	ayaq	ayaq	azaq	azïχ	azaχ	adaq	ataχ	hadaq	ura
-ɣ (mountain)	tāɣ	dağ*	dag	dağ	daɣ	togʻ	tagh	taw	tau	tō	tū	taɣ	daχ	taɣ	daɣ	tıa	tāɣ	tu
suffix *-lïɣ (mountainous)	tāɣlïɣ	dağlı	dagly	dağlı	daɣlïɣ	togʻlik	taghliq	tawlï	tauly	tōlū	tūlu	taɣliɣ	daɣluɣ			χayalaaχ		tullă

*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the ğ in dağ and dağlı is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.

Members

The following table is based mainly upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson.^{[34] [35]}

Proto-Turkic	Common Turkic	Southwestern Common Turkic (Oghuz)			Salar^[36]
			West Oghuz		Ajem-Turkic (extinct) Old Anatolian Turkish (extinct) Ottoman Turkish (evolved into modern Turkish in the early 20th century) Pecheneg (extinct) Turkish Gagauz Azerbaijani
			East Oghuz		Turkmen Khorasani Turkic
			South Oghuz		Qashqai^[37] Chaharmahali Turkic Afshari Turkic Sonqori Turkic
		(Arghu)			Khalaj
		Northwestern Common Turkic (Kipchak)
			West Kipchak		Kumyk Karachay-Balkar Crimean Tatar Urum^[38] Krymchak^[39] Karaim Cuman (extinct)
			North Kipchak (Volga–Ural Turkic)		Tatar Bashkir Old Tatar (extinct)
			South Kipchak (Aralo-Caspian)		Dobrujan Tatar Kazakh Karakalpak Nogai Siberian Tatar
			Eastern Kipchak (Kyrgyz–Kipchak)^[40] ^[41] ^[42]		Kyrgyz Fergana Kipchak (extinct)
		Southeastern Common Turkic (Karluk)	West Karluk		Uzbek
			East Karluk		Uyghur Ili Turki^[43] Äynu (Abdal) Chagatai (extinct) Khorezmian Turkic (extinct) Karakhanid (extinct)
		Northeastern Common Turkic (Siberian)	North Siberian		Yakut (Sakha) Dolgan
			South Siberian	Sayan Turkic	Tuvan Tofa Soyot-Tsaatan (extinct, partly revitalized)^[44] Dukhan
				Altai and Yenisei Turkic	Chulym Fuyu Kyrgyz Khakas Northern Altai^[45] Kumandin^[46] ^[47] Chelkan^[48] Tuba Shor Southern Altai Altai proper Telengit Teleut^[49]
					Western Yugur^[50] ^[51] ^[52] ^[53] Orkhon Turkic (extinct) Old Uyghur (extinct)
	Oghuric	Chuvash Khazar (extinct) Bulgar (extinct)

Vocabulary comparison

The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Despite being cognates, some of the words may denote a different meaning.

Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place.

Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases, the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derived ateş, whereas the native od is dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.

	Common meaning	Proto-Turkic	Old Turkic	Turkish	Azerbaijani	Karakhanid	Qashqai	Turkmen	Tatar	Karaim	Bashkir	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Uzbek	Uyghur	Sakha/Yakut	Chuvash
father, ancestor	ata, *kaŋ	ata, apa, qaŋ	baba, ata	baba, ata	apa, ata	bowa/ata	ata	ata, atay	ata	ata, atay	ata	ata	ota	ata	ağa	atte, aśu, aşşĕ
mother	ana, *ög	ana, ög	ana, anne	ana	ana, ene	ana/nänä	ene	ana, äni	ana	ana, inä(y)/asay	ana	ene, ana	ona, acha	ana	iỹe	anne, annü, amăşĕ
son	ogul	oɣul	oğul	oğul	oɣul, ohul	oğul	ogul	ul	uvul	ul	ul	uul	oʻgʻil	oghul	uol	ıvăl, ul
man	ēr, *érkek	er	erkek	ər/erkək	erkek	kiši	erkek	ir	ėr	ir, irkäk	er, erkek	er, erkek	erkak	er	er	ar/arśın
girl	kï̄ŕ	qïz	kız	qız	qɨz	qïz/qez	gyz	qız	qɨz	qıð	qyz	qız	qiz	qiz	kııs	hĕr
person	kiĺi, *yạlaŋuk	kiši, yalaŋuq	kişi	kişi	kiši		kişi	keşe	kiši	keşe	kisi	kişi	kishi	kishi	kihi	śın
bride	gélin	kelin	gelin	gəlin	qalɨŋ	gälin	gelin	kilen	kelin	kilen	kelin	kelin	kelin	kelin	kiyiit	kin
mother-in-law	<	-- probably a late innovation -->	<	-- no cognate form known -->	kaynana	qaynana		qäynänä	gaýyn ene	qayın ana		qäynä	qaıyn ene	qaynene	qaynona	qeyinana	<	-- no cognate form known -->	huńama
heart	yürek	yürek	yürek	ürək	jürek	iräg/üräg	ýürek	yöräk	üriak, jürek	yöräk	jürek	cürök	yurak	yürek	sürex	çĕre
blood	kiān	qan	kan	qan	qan	qan	gan	qan	qan	qan	qan	qan	qon	qan	xaan	yun
head	baĺč	baš	baş	baş	baš	baš	baş	baş	baš	baş	bas	baş	bosh	bash	bas	puś/poś
hair	s(i)ač, *kïl	sač, qïl	saç, kıl	saç, qıl	sač, qɨl	tik/qel	saç, gyl	çäç, qıl	čač, sač, qɨl	säs, qıl	shash, qyl	çaç, qıl	soch, qil	sach, qil	battax, kıl	śüś, hul
eye	göŕ	köz	göz	göz	köz	gez/göz	göz	küz	kioź, goz	küð	köz	köz	koʻz	köz	xarax, kös	kuś/koś
eyelash	kirpik	kirpik	kirpik	kirpik	kirpik	kirpig	kirpik	kerfek	kirpik	kerpek	kirpik	kirpik	kiprik	kirpik	kılaman, kirbii	hărpăk
ear	kulkak	qulqaq	kulak	qulaq	qulaq, qulqaq, qulxaq, qulɣaq	qulaq	gulak	qolaq	qulax	qolaq	qulaq	qulaq	quloq	qulaq	kulgaax	hălha
nose	burun	burun	burun	burun	burun	burn	burun	borın	burun	moron	muryn	murun	burun	burun	murun, munnu	murun
arm	kol	qol	kol	qol	qol	qol	gol	qul	kol	qul	qol	qol	qoʻl	qol	хol	hul
hand	el-ig	elig	el	əl	elig	äl	el	<	-- no cognate form known -->		<	-- no cognate form known -->	alaqan	alaqan	ilik	ilik	ilii	ală
finger	erŋek, *biarŋak	erŋek	parmak	barmaq	barmaq	burmaq	barmaq	barmaq	barmax	barmaq	barmaq	barmaq	barmoq	barmaq	tarbaq	pürne/porńa
fingernail	dïrŋak	tïrŋaq	tırnak	dırnaq	tɨrŋaq	dïrnaq	dyrnak	tırnaq	tɨrnax	tırnaq	tyrnaq	tırmaq	tirnoq	tirnaq	tıngıraq	çĕrne
knee	dīŕ, *dǖŕ	tiz	diz	diz	tizle-(to press with one's knees)	diz	dyz	tez	tɨz	teð	tize	tize	tizza	tiz	tobuk	çĕrśi, çerkuśśi
calf	baltïr	baltïr	baldır	baldır	baldɨr	ballïr	baldyr	baltır	baldɨr	baltır	baltyr	baltır	boldir	baldir	ballır	pıl
foot	(h)adak	adaq	ayak	ayaq	aδaq	ayaq	aýak	ayaq	ajax	ayaq	aıaq	but, ayaq	oyoq, adoq	ayaq	ataq	ura
belly	kạrïn	qarïn	karın	qarın	qarɨn	qarn	garyn	qarın	qarɨn	qarın	qaryn	qarın	qorin	qerin	xarın	hırăm
horse	(h)at	at	at	at	at	at	at	at	at	at	at	at	ot	at	at	ut/ot
cattle	dabar	ingek, tabar	inek, davar, sığır	inək, sığır	ingek, ingen; tavar	seğer	sygyr	sıyır	sɨjɨr	hıyır	siyr	uy, sıyır, inek	sigir, inak	siyir	ınax	ĕne
dog	ït, *köpek	ït	it, köpek	it	ɨt	kepäg	it	et	it´	et	ıt	it, köbök	it	it	ıt	yıtă
fish	bālïk	balïq	balık	balıq	balɨq	balïq	balyk	balıq	balɨx	balıq	balyq	balıq	baliq	beliq	balık	pulă
louse	bït	bit	bit	bit	bit	bit	bit	bet	bit	bet	bıt	bit	bit	bit	bıt	pıytă/puťă
house	eb, *bark	eb, barq	ev, bark	ev	ev	äv	öý	öy	üy, üv	öy	üı	üy	uy	öy	<	-- no cognate form known -->	śurt
tent	otag, *gerekü	otaɣ, kerekü	çadır, otağ	çadır; otaq	otaɣ, kerekü	čador	çadyr; otag	çatır	oda	satır	shatyr; otau	çatır, otoo, otoq	chodir; oʻtoq	chadir; otaq	otuu	çatăr
way	yōl	yol	yol	yol	jol	yol	ýol	yul	jol	yul	jol	col	yoʻl	yol	suol	śul
bridge	köprüg	köprüg	köprü	körpü	köprüg		köpri	küper	kiopriu	küper	köpir	köpürö	koʻprik	kövrük	kürpe	kĕper
arrow	ok	oq	ok	ox	oq	ox/tir	ok	uq	oq	uq	oq	oq	oʻq	oq	ox	uhă
fire	ōt	ōt	od, ateş (Pers.)	od	ot	ot	ot	ut	ot	ut	ot	ot	oʻt	ot	uot	vut/vot
ash	kül	kül	kül	kül	kül	kil/kül	kül	köl	kul	köl	kül	kül	kul	kül	kül	kĕl
water	sub, *sïb	sub	su	su	suv	su	suw	su	su	hıw	su	suu	suv	su	uu	şıv/şu
ship, boat	gḗmi	kemi	gemi	gəmi	kemi		gämi	köymä	gemi	kämä	keme	keme	kema	keme	<	-- no cognate form known -->	kimĕ
lake	kȫl	köl	göl	göl	köl	göl/gel	köl	kül	giol´	kül	köl	köl	koʻl	köl	küöl	külĕ
sun/day	güneĺ, *gün	kün	güneş, gün	günəş, gün	kün, qujaš	gin/gün	gün	qoyaş, kön	kujaš	qoyaş, kön	kün	kün	quyosh, kun	quyash, kün	kün	hĕvel, kun
cloud	bulït	bulut	bulut	bulud	bulut	bulut	bulut	bolıt	bulut	bolot		bulut	bulut	bulut	bılıt	pĕlĕt
star	yultuŕ	yultuz	yıldız	ulduz	julduz	ulluz	ýyldyz	yoldız	julduz	yondoð	juldyz	cıldız	yulduz	yultuz	sulus	śăltăr
ground, earth	toprak	topraq	toprak	torpaq	topraq	torpaq	toprak	tufraq	topraq, toprax	tupraq	topyraq	topuraq	tuproq	tupraq	toburax	tăpra
hilltop	tepö, *töpö	töpü	tepe	təpə	tepe		depe	tübä	tebe	tübä	töbe	döbö, töbö	tepa	töpe	töbö	tüpĕ
tree/wood	ïgač	ïɣač	ağaç	ağac	jɨɣač	ağaĵ	agaç	ağaç	ahač	ağas	ağash	baq, daraq, cığaç	yogʻoch	yahach	mas	yıvăś
god (Tengri)	teŋri, *taŋrï	teŋri, burqan	tanrı	tanrı	teŋri	tarï/Allah/Xoda	taňry	täñre	Tieńri	täñre	täŋiri	teñir	tangri	tengri	tangara	tură/toră
sky	teŋri, *kȫk	kök, teŋri	gök	göy	kök	gey/göy	gök	kük	kök	kük	kök	kök	koʻk	kök	küöx	kăvak/koak
long	uŕïn	uzun	uzun	uzun	uzun	uzun	uzyn	ozın	uzun	oðon	uzyn	uzun	uzun	uzun	uhun	vărăm
new	yaŋï, *yeŋi	yaŋï	yeni	yeni	jaŋɨ	yeŋi	ýaňy	yaña	jɨŋgɨ	yañı	jaña	cañı	yangi	yengi	saña	śĕnĕ
fat	semiŕ	semiz	semiz, şişman	səmiz	semiz		semiz	simez	semiz	himeð	semiz	semiz	semiz	semiz	emis	samăr
full	dōlï	tolu	dolu	dolu	tolu	dolu	doly	tulı	tolɨ	tulı	toly	toluq, tolu, toluu, tolo	toʻla	toluq	toloru	tulli
white	āk, *ürüŋ	āq, ürüŋ	ak, beyaz (Ar.)	ağ	aq	aq	ak	aq	aq	aq	aq	aq	oq	aq	ürüñ (үрүҥ)	şură
black	kara	qara	kara, siyah (Pers.)	qara	qara	qärä	gara	qara	qara	qara	qara	qara	qora	qara	xara	hura, hora
red	kïŕïl	qïzïl	kızıl, kırmızı (Ar.)	qızıl	qɨzɨl	qïzïl	gyzyl	qızıl	qɨzɨl	qıðıl	qyzyl	qızıl	qizil	qizil	kıhıl	hĕrlĕ
1	bīr	bir	bir	bir	bir	bir	bir	ber	bir, bɨr	ber	bir	bir	bir	bir	biir	pĕrre
	2	éki	eki	iki	iki	ẹki	ikki	iki	ike	eky	ike	eki	eki	ikki	ikki	ikki	ikkĕ
	3	üč	üč	üç	üç	üč	uǰ, u̇č	üç	öč	üć	ös	üş	üč	uch/u̇č	üch/üç	üs	viśśĕ, viśĕ, viś
	4	dȫrt	tört	dört	dörd	tört	derd/dörd	dört	dürt	dört	dürt	tört	tört	toʻrt	tört	tüört	tăvattă
	5	bēĺ(k)	béš	beş	beş	béš		bäş	beş	beš	biš	bes	beş	besh/beş	besh/beş	bies	pillĕk
	6	altï	altï	altı	altı	altï	altï	alty (altï)	altï	altï	altï	alty	altı	olti (ålti)	altä	alta	ult, ultă, ulttă
	7	yéti	yeti	yedi	yeddi	jeti	yeddi	ýedi	cide	jedi	yete	jeti	ceti	yetti	yetti	sette	śiççe
	8	sekiŕ	säkiz	sekiz	səkkiz	sek(k)iz, sik(k)iz	sӓkkiz	sekiz	sigez	sekiz	higeð	segiz	segiz	säkkiz	säkkiz	aɣïs	sakkăr, sakăr
	9	tokuŕ	toquz	dokuz	doqquz	toquz	doġġuz	dokuz	tugïz	toɣuz	tuɣïð	toğyz	toğuz	to’qqiz	toqquz	toɣus	tăxxăr, tăxăr
	10	ōn	on	on	on	on	on	on	un	on	un	on	on	oʻn	on	uon	vunnă, vună, vun
	20	yẹgirmi	yigirmi/yégirmi	yirmi	iyirmi	yigirmi, yigirme	igirmi, iyirmi	yigrimi	yegerme	yigirmi	yegerme	jiyirma	cıyırma	yigirmä	yigirmä	süürbe	śirĕm
	30	otuŕ	otuz	otuz	otuz	otuz	ottiz	otuz (otuð)	otuz	otuz	utïð	otyz	otuz	o’ttiz	ottuz	otut	vătăr
	40	kïrk	qïrq	kırk	qırx	qïrq	ġèrḫ (ɢərx)	kyrk (kïrk)	qırq (qïrq)	kïrx	qïrq	qyryq	qırq	qirq	qirq	tüört uon	xĕrĕx
	50	ellig	älig	elli	ǝlli (älli)	el(l)ig	älli, ẹlli	elli	ille			elu	elüü
	60	altmïĺ	altmïš	altmış	altmış (altmïš)	altmïš	altmïš	altmyş (altmïš)	altmïš	altïmïš	altïmïš	alpys	altımış	oltmish (åltmiš)	altmiš	alta uon	ultmăl
	70	yẹtmiĺ	yētmiš/s	yetmiş	yetmiş	yetmiš	yetmiš	ýetmiş (yetmiš)	ǰitmeš	yetmiš/s	yetmeš	jetpis	cetimiş	yetmiš	yätmiš	sette uon	śitmĕl
	80	sekiŕ ōn	säkiz on	seksen	sǝksǝn (säksän)	seksün	sӓɣsen	segsen	seksen	seksen, seksan	hikhen	seksen	seksen	sakson (säksån)	säksän	aɣïs uon	sakăr vun(ă)
	90	dokuŕ ōn	toquz on	doksan	doxsan	toqsan		togsan	tuksan	toksan, toxsan	tukhan	toqsan	toqson	to'qson (tȯksån)	toqsan	toɣus uon	tăxăr vun(ă), tăxăr vunnă
	100	yǖŕ	yüz	yüz	yüz	jüz	iz/yüz	ýüz	yöz	jiz, juz, jüz	yöð	jüz	cüz	yuz	yüz	süüs	śĕr
	1000	bïŋ	bïŋ	bin	min	miŋ, men	min	müň (müŋ)	meŋ	min, bin	meŋ	myñ	miñ	ming (miŋ)	miŋ	tïhïïnča	pin
	Common meaning	Proto-Turkic	Old Turkic	Turkish	Azerbaijani	Karakhanid	Qashqai	Turkmen	Tatar	Karaim	Bashkir	Kazakh	Kyrgyz	Uzbek	Uyghur	Sakha/Yakut	Chuvash

Azerbaijani "ǝ" and "ä": IPA /æ/

Azerbaijani "q": IPA /g/, word-final "q": IPA /x/

Turkish and Azerbaijani "ı", Karakhanid "ɨ", Turkmen "y", and Sakha "ï": IPA /ɯ/

Turkmen "ň", Karakhanid "ŋ": IPA /ŋ/

Turkish and Azerbaijani "y",Turkmen "ý" and "j" in other languages: IPA /j/

All "ş" and "š" letters: IPA /ʃ/

All "ç" and "č" letters: IPA /t͡ʃ/

Kyrgyz "c": IPA /d͡ʒ/

Kazakh "j": IPA /ʒ/

Other possible relations

The Turkic language family is currently regarded as one of the world's primary language families.^[10] Turkic is one of the main members of the controversial Altaic language family, but Altaic currently lacks support from a majority of linguists. None of the theories linking Turkic languages to other families have a wide degree of acceptance at present. Shared features with languages grouped together as Altaic have been interpreted by most mainstream linguists to be the result of a sprachbund.^[54]

Korean

The possibility of a genetic relation between Turkic and Korean, independently from Altaic, is suggested by some linguists.^{[55] [56] [57]} The linguist Kabak (2004) of the University of Würzburg states that Turkic and Korean share similar phonology as well as morphology. Li Yong-Sŏng (2014) suggest that there are several cognates between Turkic and Old Korean. He states that these supposed cognates can be useful to reconstruct the early Turkic language. According to him, words related to nature, earth and ruling but especially to the sky and stars seem to be cognates.

The linguist Choi suggested already in 1996 a close relationship between Turkic and Korean regardless of any Altaic connections:Many historians also point out a close non-linguistic relationship between Turkic peoples and Koreans.^[58] Especially close were the relations between the Göktürks and Goguryeo.^[59]

Uralic

Some linguists suggested a relation to Uralic languages, especially to the Ugric languages. This view is rejected and seen as obsolete by mainstream linguists. Similarities are because of language contact and borrowings mostly from Turkic into Ugric languages. Stachowski (2015) states that any relation between Turkic and Uralic must be a contact one.^[60]

See also

• Altaic languages
• List of Turkic languages
• List of Turkic-languages poets
• List of Ukrainian words of Turkic origin
• Middle Turkic languages
• Old Turkic
• Old Turkic script
• Proto-Turkic language

Further reading

• Akhatov G. Kh. 1960. "About the stress in the language of the Siberian Tatars in connection with the stress of modern Tatar literary language" .- Sat *"Problems of Turkic and the history of Russian Oriental Studies." Kazan.
• Akhatov G.Kh. 1963. "Dialect West Siberian Tatars" (monograph). Ufa.
• Baskakov, N. A. (1962, 1969). Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages. Moscow.
• Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006. Turkic languages in contact. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
• Clausen, Gerard. 1972. An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Deny, Jean et al. 1959–1964. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
• Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. Parlons qashqay. In: collection "parlons". Paris: L'Harmattan.
• Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. Le qashqay: langue turcique d'Iran. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online).
• Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2015. Qashqay Folktales. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online).
• Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 2022. The Turkic Languages. Second edition. London: Routledge. .
• Johanson, Lars. 2022. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 83–120.http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/classification.html
• Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In: Encyclopædia Britannica. CD 98. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 sept. 2007.http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-80003/Turkic-languages
• Menges, K. H. 1968. The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
• Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge.
• Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages. Petrograd.
• Savelyev, Alexander and Martine Robbeets. (2019). lexibank/savelyevturkic: Turkic Basic Vocabulary Database (Version v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo.
• Schönig, Claus. 1997–1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." Turkic Languages 1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151.
• Schönig, Claus. "The Internal Division of Modern Turkic and Its Historical Implications". In: Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, vol. 52, no. 1, 1999, pp. 63–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43391369 . Accessed 3 Jan. 2023.
• Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages. Leiden: Brill.
• Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and index of the World's languages. New York: Elsevier.

External links

• Interactive map of Turkic languages
• Turkic Languages Verb Comparison
• Turkic Language Portal (English)
• Turkic Inscriptions of Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
• Turkic Languages: Resources – University of Michigan
• Map of Turkic languages by Goethe University Frankfurt
• Classification of Turkic Languages by Lars Johanson
• Grouping chart of Turkic Languages
• Online Uyghur–English Dictionary
  • Turkic language vocabulary comparison tool / dictionary
• Pauctle.com dictionaries of various Turkic Languages and games for learning words by Pamukkale University
• A Comparative Dictionary of Turkic Languages Open Project
• The Turkic Languages in a Nutshell with illustrations.
• Turkic basic vocabularies at Zenodo
• Monumenta Altaica (Grammar and other sources by Russian Academy of Sciences)
• Turkic Interlingua (NLP project for Turkic languages)
• Turkic Database at Elegant Lexicon (Comprehensive lexical database for Turkic languages)
• TurkLang Conference : Astana, Kazakhstan, 2013, Istanbul, Turkey, 2014, Kazan, Tatarstan, 2015

Notes and References

1. Web site: ХРОНОЛОГИЯ ТЮРКСКИХ ЯЗЫКОВ И ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЕ КОНТАКТЫ РАННИХ ТЮРКОВ . Dybo A.V. . Chronology of Turkish Languages and Linguistic Contacts of Early Turks . 2007 . 766 . 2020-04-01 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20050311224856/http://altaica.narod.ru/LIBRARY/xronol_tu.pdf . 2005-03-11 . ru.
2. Book: Janhunen, Juha. Shared Grammaticalization: With Special Focus on the Transeurasian Languages. https://books.google.com/books?id=3J_6U8N2Wq8C&pg=PA223. Juha Janhunen. Martine Irma Robbeets. Hubert Cuyckens. 223. Personal pronouns in Core Altaic. 2013. John Benjamins . 9789027205995. 19 April 2017. 15 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230115124027/https://books.google.com/books?id=3J_6U8N2Wq8C&pg=PA223. live.
3. Book: Katzner, Kenneth. Kenneth Katzner. Languages of the World, Third Edition. Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd.. March 2002. 978-0-415-25004-7.
4. Book: Grenoble, L.A.. Language Policy in the Soviet Union. Springer. 2003. 9781402012983. 10.
5. Book: Rybatzki, Volker . Altaic Languages: Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic . Martine Robbeets . Alexander Savelyev . The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages . 2020 . Oxford University Press . 22–28 . 10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0003.
6. Web site: UCLA International Institute, Center for World Languages. Language Materials Project: Turkish. 2007-04-26. February 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071011180149/http://lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu=004&LangID=67. 11 October 2007. dead. dmy-all.
7. Vovin . Alexander . 2005 . The end of the Altaic controversy: In memory of Gerhard Doerfer . Central Asiatic Journal . 49 . 1 . 71–132 . 41928378.
8. Georg . Stefan . Michalove . Peter A. . Ramer . Alexis Manaster . Sidwell . Paul J. . 1999 . Telling general linguists about Altaic . Journal of Linguistics . 35 . 1 . 65–98 . 10.1017/S0022226798007312 . 4176504. 144613877 .
9. Sinor, 1988, p.710
10. George van DRIEM: Handbuch der Orientalistik. Volume 1 Part 10. BRILL 2001. Page 336
11. M. A. Castrén, Nordische Reisen und Forschungen. V, St.-Petersburg, 1849
12. Book: Artificial Life 8. 391. 9780262692816 . Standish . Russell K. . Bedau . Mark . Abbass . Hussein A. . 25 August 2023 . MIT Press .
13. Yunusbayev . Bayazit . Metspalu . Mait . Metspalu . Ene . Valeev . Albert . Litvinov . Sergei . Valiev . Ruslan . Akhmetova . Vita . Balanovska . Elena . Balanovsky . Oleg . 3 . 2015-04-21 . The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia . PLOS Genetics . 11 . 4 . e1005068 . 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068 . 1553-7390 . 4405460 . 25898006 . The origin and early dispersal history of the Turkic peoples is disputed, with candidates for their ancient homeland ranging from the Transcaspian steppe to Manchuria in Northeast Asia, . free .
14. Yunusbayev . Bayazit . Metspalu . Mait . Metspalu . Ene . Valeev . Albert . Litvinov . Sergei . Valiev . Ruslan . Akhmetova . Vita . Balanovska . Elena . Balanovsky . Oleg . 3 . 2015-04-21 . The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia . PLOS Genetics . 11 . 4 . e1005068 . 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068 . 1553-7390 . 4405460 . 25898006 . "Thus, our study provides the first genetic evidence supporting one of the previously hypothesized IAHs to be near Mongolia and South Siberia." . free .
15. Book: Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses . Blench . Roger . Spriggs . Matthew . 2003 . Routledge . 9781134828692 . en . 203 . 9 April 2020 . 15 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230115124027/https://books.google.com/books?id=48iKiprsRMwC&pg=PA203 . live .
16. Golden, Peter Benjamin (2011). "Ethnogenesis in the tribal zone: The Shaping of the Turks". Studies on the peoples and cultures of the Eurasian steppes. . Bucureşti: Ed. Acad. Române. pp. 35–37.
17. Clark . Larry V. . 1980 . Turkic Loanwords in Mongol, I: The Treatment of Non-initial S, Z, Š, Č . . 24 . 1/2 . 36–59 . 41927278.
18. Rachewiltz, Igor de. Introduction to Altaic philology: Turkic, Mongolian, Manchu / by Igor de Rachewiltz and Volker Rybatzki; with the collaboration of Hung Chin-fu. p. cm. — (Handbook of Oriental Studies = Handbuch der Orientalistik. Section 8, Central Asia; 20). — Leiden; Boston, 2010. — P. 7.
19. Book: The Turkic Languages. Johanson. Lars. Johanson. Éva Ágnes Csató. 2015-04-29. Routledge. 9781136825279. en. 22 November 2020. 15 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230115124027/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z7i5CAAAQBAJ&q=turkic+mongolian+related&pg=PA76. live.
20. Book: Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia. registration. Cambridge University Press. March 2000. 978-0-521-65169-1.
21. Book: The Turkic Languages . 2021 . Routledge . 9781003243809 . Johanson . Lars . 10.4324/9781003243809 . "Another Turkic people in the Volga area are the Chuvash, who, like the Tatars, regard themselves as descendants of the Volga Bulghars in the historical and cultural sense. It is clear that Chuvash belongs to the Oghur branch of Turkic, as the language of the Volga Bulghars did, but no direct evidence for diachronic development between the two has been established. As there were several distinct Oghur languages in the Middle Ages, Volga Bulghar could represent one of these and Chuvash another." . Csató . Éva Á.
22. Agyagási . K. . 2020 . A Volga Bulgarian Classifier: A Historical and Areal Linguistic Study . University of Debrecen . en . 3 . 9 . "Modern Chuvash is the only descendant language of the Ogur branch.The ancestors of its speakers left the Khazar Empire in the 8th century and migrated to the region at the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers, where they founded the Volga Bulgarian Empire in the 10th century. In the central Volga region three Volga Bulgarian dialects developed, and Chuvash is the descendant of the 3rd dialect of Volga Bulgarian (Agyagási 2019: 160–183). Sources refer to it as a separate language beginning with 1508".
23. Poppe. Nicolas J.. A Survey of Studies of Turkic Loan-Words in the Russian Language. 1966. Central Asiatic Journal. 11. 4. 287–310. 41926932. 0008-9192. 28 November 2021. 28 November 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211128225545/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41926932. live.
24. Book: Findley, Carter V.. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. October 2004. 978-0-19-517726-8.
25. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90010 Turkic Language tree
26. Book: Johanson . Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map . Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul . 2001 . 91-86884-10-7 . Stockholm . 2001 . July 17, 2024.
27. Lars Johanson, The History of Turkic. In Lars Johanson & Éva Ágnes Csató (eds), The Turkic Languages, London, New York: Routledge, 81–125, 1998.Classification of Turkic languages
28. See the main article on Lir-Turkic.
29. Web site: Gordon, Raymond G. Jr. . Ethnologue. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Language Family Trees – Turkic. 2007-03-18. 2005. 14 September 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120914151437/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90010. live. The reliability of Ethnologue lies mainly in its statistics whereas its framework for the internal classification of Turkic is still based largely on Baskakov (1962) and the collective work in Deny et al. (1959–1964). A more up-to-date alternative to classifying these languages on internal comparative grounds is to be found in the work of Johanson and his co-workers.
30. 10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.064 . 25532895 . 4291143 . Detecting Regular Sound Changes in Linguistics as Events of Concerted Evolution 10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.064 . Current Biology . 25 . 1 . 1–9 . 2015 . Hruschka . Daniel J. . Branford . Simon . Smith . Eric D. . Wilkins . Jon . Meade . Andrew . Pagel . Mark . Bhattacharya . Tanmoy .
31. Book: Самойлович, А. Н.. Alexander Samoylovich. 1922. ru:Некоторые дополнения к классификации турецких языков. http://xn--90ax2c.xn--p1ai/catalog/000200_000018_RU_NLR_INFOCOMM15_1000117889/. ru. 19 July 2018. 19 July 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180719203843/http://xn--90ax2c.xn--p1ai/catalog/000200_000018_RU_NLR_INFOCOMM15_1000117889/. dead.
32. Larry Clark, "Chuvash", in The Turkic Languages, eds. Lars Johanson & Éva Ágnes Csató (London–NY: Routledge, 2006), 434–452.
33. Anton Antonov & Guillaume Jacques, "Turkic kümüš 'silver' and the lambdaism vs sigmatism debate", Turkic Languages 15, no. 2 (2012): 151–70.
34. Lars Johanson, "The classification of the Turkic languages", in Martine Robbeets and Alexander Savelyev (eds.), The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages, 2020, Oxford University Press, pp. 105–114
35. Web site: turcologica. 18 June 2021. 8 April 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110408063746/http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/classification.html. live.
36. Deviating. Historically developed from Southwestern (Oghuz) (Johanson 1998) http://www.turkiclanguages.com/www/classification.html
37. Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. 82-83p.
38. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/urum1249 Urum
39. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/krym1236 Krymchak
40. Baskakov . N. A. . Nikolai Baskakov (linguist) . 1958 . La Classification des Dialectes de la Langue Turque d'Altaï . Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae . 8 . 9–15 . 0001-6446 . fr.
41. Book: Baskakov . N. A. . Nikolai Baskakov (linguist) . Введение в изучение тюркских языков . Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages . Moscow . Nauka . ru . 1969.
42. Encyclopedia: Алтайский язык . Altai language . Kormushin, I. V. . ru . 2018 . Большая российская энциклопедия/Great Russian Encyclopedia Online . 31 July 2021 . 27 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210727181345/https://bigenc.ru/linguistics/text/5199785 . live .
43. https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/ilit1241 Ili Turki
44. Web site: The Soyot Language . Rassadin, V.I. . Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia . . 2021-07-18 . 3 May 2006 . https://web.archive.org/web/20060503111550/https://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/languages/soiot.shtml . live .
45. Web site: Northern Altai . . 2021-07-16 . 25 November 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221125141836/https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/3869 . live .
46. Web site: Kumandin . . 2021-07-15 . 27 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211127000834/https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/10475 . live .
47. Web site: The Kumandin Language . Bitkeeva, A.N. . Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia . . 2021-07-16 . 11 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210711183413/https://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/languages/kumandy.shtml . live .
48. Web site: The Chelkan Language . Tazranova, A.R. . Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia . . 2021-07-16 . 11 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210711092000/https://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/languages/chelkan.shtml . live .
49. Web site: The Teleut Language . Nevskaya, I.A. . Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia . . 2021-07-16 . 11 July 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210711092004/https://lingsib.iea.ras.ru/en/languages/teleut.shtml . live .
50. https://books.google.com/books?id=7XuMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 Coene 2009
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52. Book: The Mainz Meeting: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, August 3–6, 1994. Turcologica Series. Lars. Johanson. Contributor Éva Ágnes Csató. 1998. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 28. 978-3447038645. 24 April 2014. 15 January 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230115124028/https://books.google.com/books?id=cgNQdljvk70C&pg=PA28. live.
53. In Glottolog, Western Yugur is classified as Enisei-East Siberian Turkic.
54. Janhunen . Juha A. . 2023-01-17 . The Unity and Diversity of Altaic . Annual Review of Linguistics . en . 9 . 1 . 135–154 . 10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356 . 2333-9683. 10138/355895 . 256126714 . free .
55. Sibata . Takesi . 1979 . Some syntactic similarities between Turkish, Korean, and Japanese . Central Asiatic Journal . 23 . 3/4 . 293–296 . 0008-9192 . 41927271.
56. SOME STAR NAMES IN MODERN TURKIC LANGUAGES-I – Yong-Sŏng LI – Academy of Korean Studies Grant funded by the Korean Government (MEST) (AKS-2010-AGC-2101) – Seoul National University 2014
57. Choi . Han-Woo . 1996 . A comparative study of Korean and Turkic: Is Korean Altaic? . International Journal of Central Asian Studies . 1 . 24 April 2019 . 12 December 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191212190618/http://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/CHOI/choi1996.pdf . live .
58. Babayar . Gaybullah . 2004 . On the ancient relations between the Turkic and Korean peoples . Journal of Turkic Civilization Studies . 1 . 151–155 . 24 April 2019 . 13 July 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190713025335/http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/15_779-2047-1-PB.pdf . dead .
59. Tae-Don . Noh . 2016 . Relations between ancient Korea and Turkey: An examination of contacts between Koguryŏ and the Turkic Khaganate . Seoul Journal of Korean Studies . en . 29 . 2 . 361–369 . 10.1353/seo.2016.0017 . 10371/164838 . 151445857 . 2331-4826 . 24 April 2019 . 24 April 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190424183833/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/646472 . live .
60. Stachowski . Marek . 2015 . Turkic pronouns against a Uralic background . Iran and the Caucasus . 19 . 1 . 79–86 . 10.1163/1573384X-20150106 . 1609-8498 . 24 April 2019 . 24 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211124081956/https://www.academia.edu/12022061 . live .