| Turin Massacre (1864) | |
| Location: | Piazza Castello and Piazza San Carlo, Turin, Italy |
| Fatalities: | 62 |
| Injuries: | 138 |
| Perpetrators: | Carabinieri, Royal Italian Army |
| Motive: | Repression of protests against the relocation of the capital |
The Turin massacre was a massacre carried out by members of the Royal Italian Army (mainly Carabinieri cadets) on September 21 and 22, 1864 against groups of civilian demonstrators. The clashes occurred during popular protests against the transfer of the capital of the Kingdom of Italy from the Piedmontese city to Florence.
In the afternoon of September 21, 1864, after clashes between demonstrators and law enforcement had taken place in Turin's Piazza San Carlo in the morning, a crowd of civilians armed with sticks attempted to approach the headquarters of the Ministry of the Interior in Piazza Castello, which was defended by a contingent of carabinieri cadets: the carabinieri fired on the demonstrators, causing 15 casualties. The following evening, Sep 22, new riots took place in Piazza San Carlo involving more carabinieri cadets who, in the confusion, fired indiscriminately on the crowd, also hitting members of an infantry battalion who were crossing the square and who also opened fire: 47 military and civilian personnel were killed in the crossfire.
The events caused the fall of the Minghetti government as well as several official inquiries by parliamentary commissions; however, all those arrested were subject to a general amnesty in February 1865.
In June 1864, taking advantage of rumors about the health of Pope Pius IX and possible uprisings in the Papal States, prime minister Marco Minghetti sent Gioacchino Napoleone Pepoli to the Italian ambassador in Paris, Costantino Nigra, with arrangements to negotiate the withdrawal of French troops from the Holy See's territories. To reach the agreement, Emperor Napoleon III required a guarantee showing the renunciation of the conquest of Rome, which had been indicated since 1861 by the Italian government as the ideal capital of the kingdom; Pepoli asked if moving the Italian capital from Turin to another city, something already assumed by the government, could provide adequate guarantee; the emperor confirmed that he would certainly sign the agreement with that condition. Victor Emmanuel II was informed in August, upon Pepoli's return.
On September 11, 1864, Minghetti informed Minister Menabrea that the king accepted the treaty, moving the capital to Florence for purely strategic reasons.
The convention was then officially signed on September 15, 1864. At the request of Victor Emmanuel II, the binding protocol to move the seat of government was kept separate and secret within six months of the signing to prevent it from appearing "the result of pressure from a foreign government."
Despite ministerial secrecy, details of the agreement began to circulate as early as August 26 of that year. Turin newspapers, linked to political factions, took different positions on the agreement. The Minghetti government could count on Gazzetta ufficiale, the voice of the ministry, and on L'Opinione, directed by Giacomo Dina; it was also supported by La Stampa (different from the later newspaper of the same name), directed by Paulo Fambri and linked to Ubaldino Peruzzi and Silvio Spaventa, and the Gazzetta di Torino, linked to Luigi Menabrea. Then there were Senator Carlo Alfieri's Discussione, Monarchia nazionale linked to Urbano Rattazzi and the center-left, and Il Diritto linked to the left-wing. The anticlerical Gazzetta del popolo was headed by Giovan Battista Bottero.
On Sep 16, the day after the signing, L'Opinione published the agreement, with no mention of the secret protocol; on Sep 18 Gazzetta del popolo reported the erroneous rumor (which had spread the previous day) that the condition imposed by the French side was the relocation of the capital to Florence.[1] The dissemination of fragmentary news then led to speculation and accusations against the government; there were even rumors of ceding Piedmontese territory to France.
On September 20, a demonstration was held in the streets of the city with shouts against the relocation of the capital ("Down with the ministry!, Rome or Turin!, Down with the agreement!, Long live Garibaldi!") and with the participation of a large number of people (five or six thousand according to some sources[2]). The relocation of the capital was seen by many as a threat to the economic development of the city, as can be seen below:
In addition, about 100 people gathered in Piazza Castello to protest with whistles against the headquarters of the Gazzetta di Torino, leaving after a short time without incident. The paper that day had published an article[3] which, although in favor of the agreement, was supposed to pacify the people of Turin; it was "sent by the Court to the paper at the desire of the king himself, who was quite mistaken as to the effect it would produce, and to which none of the courtiers had the good sense to advise against its publication.[4] [5]
The afternoonThe extraordinary city council was scheduled for 2 pm. to discuss the relocation of the capital. Various people gathered under the windows to get news; protests also occurred and copies of the Gazzetta di Torino were burned.
In the lack of news from the ongoing city council, people quickly dispersed, while a small group of young people headed to Piazza San Carlo to the printing press of the Gazzetta di Torino with some Italian flags. The owner went to the police headquarters to request help, while others prevented the group from entering. Orders then came from the police headquarters to disperse the gatherings, seize the flags and arrest those carrying them. Numerous public security guards (mainly cadets) rushed to the scene and unsheathed their daggers against the gathering of people, who, taken by surprise, responded with stones; the guards then chased and beat the people outside the square as well, striking and throwing bystanders and passers-by to the ground and even those who were in charge of defending the printing press.
Twenty-nine people were taken to the police station, including some injured; a new group began to form in front of the building, and the guards came out again with daggers in their fists, but were stopped by their superiors. The group outside, which had become large, demanded the release of those arrested, considering the guards' action disproportionate; stones were also thrown at the windows.
The police headquarters was now besieged, and a delegation from the city council arrived (Rignon, Pateri Corsi, Moris and Villa) who, failing to calm the crowd, advised the police commissioner to release the arrested (the return of the flags was also requested). A pacification of the square was thus achieved.
EveningSeveral gatherings of people formed in the city starting at 5 pm, first under the city hall and then under the mayor's residence; the latter on both occasions tried to persuade the protesters to respect the law.
A crowd had gathered in Piazza San Carlo to protest against the Turin Gazette and the police headquarters. Carabinieri cadets, armed with loaded rifles, were stationed in the square, followed by numerous troops (bersaglieri, cavalry and infantry) while the National Guard rode through the adjacent streets; the aim was to keep the square clear and disperse the gatherings. Despite some provocations against the soldiers by throwing stones, the crowd began to thin out.
Two squads (one of carabinieri cadets) were arranged in Piazza Castello, dispersing a first group directed against the headquarters of the Ministry of the Interior. Another group of demonstrators, armed with sticks, entered the square and headed for the ministry toward the carabinieri cadets; after a brief uproar, two gunshots were heard, followed by a line of fire aimed at the population. After an initial moment of surprise, the square emptied leaving only dead and injured people.
Rescue efforts began; a gathering also formed, throwing stones at the carabinieri, who then retreated toward the Ministry headquarters.
During the night the bersaglieri arrested eight people who had taken weapons from a gunsmith's store.
Reactions to the events of the previous evening
An exchange of communications took place between Victor Emmanuel II and Marco Minghetti the morning after the first massacre.
There were a few demonstrations during the day against the printing press of the Turin Gazette, but these were easily dispersed.
EveningIn the evening, several gatherings formed around the city which insulted the carabinieri and public security officers present in the streets and reached Piazza San Carlo. In the square, defending the police headquarters, were the carabinieri, infantry and public security officers, but without coordination between the different corporations. The square was crowded, however, and carriages passed regularly. The presence of the carabinieri was the cause of insults, as they were accused of firing on helpless citizens the day before; the commanders' proposal to withdraw the carabinieri from the square to avoid incidents was not approved by the police commissioner.
A vast cackling gathering, described as consisting largely of drunkards, arrived in the square and began cursing at the carabinieri present and throwing stones at the police headquarters. The police commissioner then ordered more troops out, including carabinieri cadets, to ward off those who were present. As intimations were being made for the crowd to disperse, gunshots were heard and the carabinieri fired toward the center of the square, hitting an infantry battalion that was crossing it; public security officers in turn fired from the door of the police headquarters. In the ensuing confusion, numerous shots were fired from various directions by the military officers present; when the firing finally succeeded, numerous dead and injured people remained on the ground in the square.
In the square, at the foot of the monument of Emmanuel Philibert, bullet marks are still visible to this day.
Data on deaths and injuries on the two days were collected by Dr. Giuseppe Rizzetti; his report was later published in at least three different versions (the first contained data updated as of Oct 10,[6] the second as of Oct 13 of the same month,[7] and the third updated in November).
The third version indicated 15 deaths from the September 21 events in Piazza Castello and 47 deaths from the September 22 events in Piazza San Carlo, respectively. A total of 138 injured were reported, but it is estimated that the actual number was higher, as some of the injured might have chosen to treat themselves "without medical intervention in order not to incur criminal penalties or to protect the family from possible retaliation."
The dead on September 22 included four military personnel; there were injured military personnel on both days.
The victims were buried in Turin's Monumental Cemetery "in a distinct square of earth to the northwest."[8]
The events of September 21 and 22 made the situation untenable for the government.
On the same day, the king commissioned Alfonso La Marmora to form a new government.
There were several inquiries to determine the course of events.
As early as the morning of September 22, after the first events, the municipal council ordered an administrative inquiry, charging deputy Casimiro Ara with this. The report of this first inquiry, delivered as early as October 5, was printed on October 11 and was then distributed to deputies and senators and to all town halls in the Kingdom.
Another administrative inquiry ordered by the Minghetti government was also not followed up due to the fall of the government itself.
A judicial inquiry was conducted as a result of a lawsuit filed on September 24, 1864, by fifteen citizens (doctors, lawyers, journalists and deputies such as Pier Carlo Boggio) against the then Minister of the Interior Ubaldino Peruzzi and Silvio Spaventa (the minister's first secretary).[9] However, on October 24 it was quickly concluded with a "non-suit."
As a result of military inquiry 58 carabinieri and cadets were arrested, sending before a military tribunal the carabinieri present on September 21 in Piazza Castello and before ordinary tribunals the Civil Guard and carabinieri present on September 22 in Piazza San Carlo.[10]
On Oct 24, the Chamber appointed a commission of inquiry to determine possible government responsibility, chaired by Carlo Bon Compagni di Mombello and composed of deputies Claudio Sandonnini (secretary), Giuseppe Biancheri, Francesco de Sanctis, Vincenzo Malenchini, Giovanni Morandini, Oreste Regnoli, Giuseppe Robecchi and Giorgio Tamajo.[11] [12] Francesco De Sanctis had followed the events closely and reported the news in anonymous articles published by L'Italia of Naples.[13]
On January 5, 1865, the parliamentary committee completed the report and it was decided to give it to the press (the proceedings, in view of their volume, were not printed, but it was decided that they should be deposited with the secretary of the Chamber).[14] After a delay for some corrections, it was made public.[15] The parliamentary debate was held on January 23, but it was decided on Bettino Ricasoli's proposal that no decision would be made.[16]
The Chamber's decision not to consider the inquiry committee's report sparked new protests.
On the evening of January 25, a group of students demonstrated without incident in favor of the mayor and the deputies who had supported the reasons of the people of Turin during the debates in the Chamber. There was speculation that the city administration might resign as a sign of protest. Despite fears of the worsening situation, the demonstrations on the evening of the 26th also took place without incident.
Various articles from those days, while urging calm, served to stir up tempers. There was also a collection of signatures to urge senators to vote for the inquiry presented to the House. On the evening of the 27th there was a demonstration, but not by students; there were clashes with the National Guard and 25 participants were arrested, listed as "known to the police, subject to special surveillance, several having recently left prison." Among those arrested was one student, who was released the next day.
Only one small demonstration occurred on the evening of the 28th, which was broken up by the National Guard without incident. These demonstrations, according to the mayor, were to be attributed "to the lack of work that left a good number of unemployed workers on the pavement due to the cessation of that movement that had manifested itself in the City before the relocation of the Capital."
On January 29, a court dance party was announced for the following day; in fact, Minister Giovanni Lanza believed that the situation was now calm in Turin and that there would be no incidents.[17] Fearing new protests, however, the local authorities mobilized soldiers.On January 31 Lanza submitted his resignation, which was withdrawn only upon the king's intervention.
On the morning of February 3 Victor Emmanuel II left Turin for good to move to Florence.
On Sunday, February 26, 1865, the king was back in Turin for the carnival. Several court carriages participated in the festivities, and the king's appearance was greeted by applause. The carriage was approached by a Gianduja who addressed the king with the words, "You see in what a state I am already reduced, yet if for Italy and for you it will be necessary to give this last garment I am ready to do so."[18]
The festive reception allowed the king to "erase all memory of painful events on which it highly matters that the veil of oblivion be drawn"; by royal decree of the same day a complete amnesty was granted for the events of September 1864 and for the events of late January 1865.[19]
Therefore, there would be no consequences for either the protesters arrested on such occasions or the soldiers arrested after the military inquiry.
A document dated February 9, 1866, from the historical archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (attached to a communication from the Italian consul in Montevideo dated Feb. 13) reports that Giacomo Ramò, captain of the boat Emilia, stated that he had transported from Genoa to Buenos Aires 138 enlisted men for the Argentine government delivered to him by security guards on Oct 14 and 16, 1865; for the 72 embarked on Oct 14 he was reportedly told that "they were part of the Turin uprising of Sept. 21 and 22 and that portions were being extracted from the prisons of Sant'Andrea in Genoa."[20] However, there is no corroboration of these statements from other sources.
Several non-Piedmontese deputies and members of the government were in favor of relocating the capital from Turin because they considered the Piedmontese presence within the public administration excessive.
In publications and newspapers from Turin at the time, the idea of a plan by the president of the Council Marco Minghetti (from Bologna), the minister of the interior Ubaldino Peruzzi (from Florence) and the secretary Silvio Spaventa (from Naples) to provoke riots and to be able to suspend or take away civil liberties was circulated; the presence of provocateurs who would stir up the crowd was mentioned.[21]
In reality, the existence of a prearranged plan to create riots that could be suppressed in an authoritarian manner should be ruled out.
Peruzzi and Spaventa exploited every opportunity, however, to make Turin appear negative and to make it necessary to relocate the capital: Peruzzi incited anti-Piedmont demonstrations in Italian cities; Spaventa manipulated the communications of the Stefani Agency concerning the events in Turin so as to place the responsibility on the population and the municipality.
On September 21, 1865, many stores were decorated in mourning. On the morning of September 22, 1865, an initial mourning procession was formed by the association of cooks and waiters, due to commitments related to their profession; all other associations gathered to go through the center headed for a church service and then to the cemetery and lay wreaths on the graves of the deceased.[22]
The commemoration was repeated for a few years.
In 1867 a "monument to the victims of September" is mentioned,[23] but in 1868 there was no monument.[24] The image given in the National Almanac for 1866 with a funerary stele is to be considered fictional, because in 1865 wreaths were laid on individual graves, and no monument is mentioned in the description.
In December 1999, the city of Turin placed a plaque in Piazza San Carlo in memory of the victims.The numbers given in the plaque seem to be taken from the first version of Dr. Rizzetti's report included in the municipal inquiry: in fact, he indicated a number of 52 total deaths in the events in Piazza San Carlo and Piazza Castello; the number 187 was the number he initially reported for the total number of dead and injured.
On September 22, 2014, the Turin City Council commemorated the 150th anniversary of the incident.[25]