Tuna Explained

A tuna (: tunas or tuna) is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a subgrouping of the Scombridae (mackerel) family. The Thunnini comprise 15 species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, ranging from the bullet tuna (max length:, weight:) up to the Atlantic bluefin tuna (max length:, weight:), which averages and is believed to live up to 50 years.

Tuna, opah and mackerel sharks are the only species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, and is among the fastest-swimming pelagic fish – the yellowfin tuna, for example, is capable of speeds of up to .[1] [2] Greatly inflated speeds can be found in early scientific reports and are still widely reported in the popular literature.

Found in warm seas, the tuna is commercially fished extensively as a food fish, and is popular as a bluewater game fish. As a result of overfishing, some tuna species, such as the southern bluefin tuna, are threatened with extinction.

Etymology

The term "tuna" comes from Spanish atún < Andalusian Arabic at-tūn, assimilated from al-tūn Arabic: التون [Modern Arabic {{lang|ar|التن}}] : 'tuna fish' < Middle Latin thunnus.[3] Latin: Thunnus is derived from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: θύννος|thýnnos used for the Atlantic bluefin tuna,[4] that name in turn is ultimately derived from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: θύνω thýnō, meaning "to rush, dart along".[5]

In English, tuna has been referred to as Chicken of the Sea. This name persists today in Japan, where tuna as a food can be called, literally "sea chicken".

Taxonomy

The Thunnini tribe is a monophyletic clade comprising 15 species in five genera:

The cladogram is a tool for visualizing and comparing the evolutionary relationships between taxa, and is read left-to-right as if on a timeline. The following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. For example, the cladogram illustrates that the skipjack tunas are more closely related to the true tunas than are the slender tunas (the most primitive of the tunas), and that the next nearest relatives of the tunas are the bonitos of the tribe Sardini.

True species

The "true" tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus. Until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on both molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species.[6] [7]

The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera: Thunnus (Thunnus) (the bluefin group), and Thunnus (Neothunnus) (the yellowfin group).[8]

|}

Other species

The Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are:

Other tuna species
Common nameScientific nameMaximum
length		Common
length		Maximum
weight		Maximum
age		Trophic
level		SourceIUCN status
Slender tunaAllothunnus fallai
(Serventy, 1948) 		1.05abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.86abbr=onNaNabbr=on13.7abbr=onNaNabbr=on3.74 Least concern[9]
Bullet tunaAuxis rochei
(Risso, 1810)		0.5abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.35abbr=onNaNabbr=on1.8abbr=onNaNabbr=on5 years4.13 Least concern[10]
Frigate tunaAuxis thazard 
(Lacépède, 1800)		0.65abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.35abbr=onNaNabbr=on1.7abbr=onNaNabbr=on5 years4.34 Least concern[11]
Mackerel tuna,
Kawakawa		Euthynnus affinis
(Cantor, 1849)		1abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.6abbr=onNaNabbr=on13.6abbr=onNaNabbr=on6 years4.50 Least concern[12]
Little tunnyEuthynnus alletteratus
(Rafinesque, 1810)		1.2abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.8abbr=onNaNabbr=on16.5abbr=onNaNabbr=on10 years4.13 Least concern[13]
Black skipjack tuna Euthynnus lineatus
(Kishinouye, 1920)		0.84abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.6abbr=onNaNabbr=on11.8abbr=onNaNabbr=on3.83 Least concern[14]
Skipjack tunaKatsuwonus pelamis
(Linnaeus, 1758)		1.1abbr=onNaNabbr=on0.8abbr=onNaNabbr=on34.5abbr=onNaNabbr=on6–12 yrs3.75 Least concern[15]

Biology

See also: Thunnus.

Description

The tuna is a sleek, elongated and streamlined fish, adapted for speed. It has two closely spaced but separated dorsal fins on its back; The first fin is "depressible" – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back; it is supported by spines.[16] Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the dorsal fins to the tail, which is lunate – curved like a crescent moon – and tapered to pointy tips.[17] A tuna's pelvic fins are located below the base of the pectoral fins. Both dorsal and pelvic fins retract when the fish is swimming fast.[16]

The tuna's body is countershaded to camouflage itself in deeper water when seen from above, its dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue while the ventral or under side is silvery, often with an iridescent shine.[18] [17] The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, with three stabilizing horizontal keels on each side.[17]

Physiology

Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical and temperate waters at latitudes ranging between about 45° north and south of the equator. All tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a core body temperature of 25C33C, in water as cold as 6C. Unlike other endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tuna do not maintain temperature within a relatively narrow range.[19]

Tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, and coronary circulation is directly from the gills. The rete mirabile ("wonderful net"), the intertwining of veins and arteries in the body's periphery, allows nearly all of the metabolic heat from venous blood to be "re-claimed" and transferred to the arterial blood via a counter-current exchange system, thus mitigating the effects of surface cooling.[20] This allows the tuna to elevate the temperatures of the highly-aerobic tissues of the skeletal muscles, eyes and brain,[19] [21] which supports faster swimming speeds and reduced energy expenditure, and which enables them to survive in cooler waters over a wider range of ocean environments than those of other fish.

Also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, which tuna express in quantities far higher than most other fish. The oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles.[19]

For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, because it limits their maximum swimming speed.[22] Even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful. Cavitation also slows tuna, but for a different reason. Unlike dolphins, these fish do not feel the bubbles, because they have bony fins without nerve endings. Nevertheless, they cannot swim faster because the cavitation bubbles create a vapor film around their fins that limits their speed. Lesions have been found on tuna that are consistent with cavitation damage.[22]

Fishing

Commerce

Tuna is an important commercial fish. The International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (ISSF) compiled a detailed scientific report on the state of global tuna stocks in 2009, which includes regular updates. According to the ISSF, the most important species for commercial and recreational tuna fisheries are yellowfin (Thunnus albacares), bigeye (T. obesus), bluefin (T. thynnus, T. orientalis, and T. macoyii), albacore (T. alalunga), and skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis).[23]

Based on catches from 2007, the report states:

The Australian government alleged in 2006 that Japan had illegally overfished southern bluefin by taking 12,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year instead of the agreed upon 6,000 tonnes; the value of such overfishing would be as much as US$2 billion.[24] Such overfishing has severely damaged bluefin stocks.[25] According to the WWF, "Japan's huge appetite for tuna will take the most sought-after stocks to the brink of commercial extinction unless fisheries agree on more rigid quotas".[26] Japan's Fisheries Research Agency counters that Australian and New Zealand tuna fishing companies under-report their total catches of southern bluefin tuna and ignore internationally mandated total allowable catch totals.[27]

In recent years, opening day fish auctions at Tokyo's Tsukiji fish market and Toyosu Market have seen record-setting prices for bluefin tuna, reflecting market demand. In each of 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2019, new record prices have been set for a single fish – the current record is 333.6 million japanese yen (US$3.1 million) for a 278kg (613lb) bluefin, or a unit price of JP¥ 1,200,000/kg (US$5,057/lb). The opening auction price for 2014 plummeted to less than 5% of the previous year's price, which had drawn complaints for climbing "way out of line".[28] A summary of record-setting auctions are shown in the following table (highlighted values indicate new world records):

Record bluefin tuna auctions at Tokyo's Tsukiji fish market and Toyosu Market
(Highlighted field indicates new record price for a single fish)
YearTotal
weight		Total saleUnit priceSource
(JP ¥)(US $)(¥ / kg)($ / lb)
2001202abbr=onNaNabbr=on¥20.2 million$173,600¥100,000 / kg$386 / lb
2010232abbr=onNaNabbr=on¥16.28 million$175,000¥70,172 / kg$343 / lb[29]
2011342abbr=onNaNabbr=on¥32.49 million$396,000¥95,000 / kg$528 / lb[30]
2012269abbr=onNaNabbr=on¥56.49 million$736,000¥210,000 / kg$1,247 / lb[31]
2013221abbr=onNaNabbr=on¥155.4 million$1.76 million¥703,167 / kg$3,603 / lb[32]
2019278abbr=onNaNabbr=on¥333.6 million$3.1 million¥1,200,000 / kg$5,057 / lb[33]

In November 2011, a different record was set when a fisherman in Massachusetts caught an 881lb tuna. It was captured inadvertently using a dragnet. Due to the laws and restrictions on tuna fishing in the United States, federal authorities impounded the fish because it was not caught with a rod and reel. Because of the tuna's deteriorated condition as a result of the trawl net, the fish sold for just under $5,000.[34]

Methods

Besides for edible purposes, many tuna species are caught frequently as game, often for recreation or for contests in which money is awarded based on weight. Larger specimens are notorious for putting up a fight while hooked, and have been known to injure people who try to catch them, as well as damage their equipment.

Association with whaling

In 2005, Nauru, defending its vote from Australian criticism at that year's meeting of the International Whaling Commission, argued that some whale species have the potential to devastate Nauru's tuna stocks, and that Nauru's food security and economy relies heavily on fishing.[35] Despite this, Nauru does not permit whaling in its own waters and does not allow other fishing vessels to take or intentionally interact with marine mammals in its Exclusive Economic Zone. In 2010 and 2011, Nauru supported Australian proposals[36] for a western Pacific-wide ban on tuna purse-seining in the vicinity of marine mammals – a measure which was agreed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission at its eighth meeting in March 2012.

Association with dolphins

Dolphins swim beside several tuna species. These include yellowfin tuna in the eastern Pacific Ocean, but not albacore. Tuna schools are believed to associate themselves with dolphins for protection against sharks, which are tuna predators.[37]

Commercial fishing vessels used to exploit this association by searching for dolphin pods. Vessels would encircle the pod with nets to catch the tuna beneath.[38] The nets were prone to entangling dolphins, injuring or killing them. Public outcry and new government regulations, which are now monitored by NOAA have led to more dolphin-friendly methods, now generally involving lines rather than nets. There are neither universal independent inspection programs nor verification of dolphin safety, so these protections are not absolute. According to Consumers Union, the resulting lack of accountability means claims of tuna that is "dolphin safe" should be given little credence.

Fishery practices have changed to be dolphin friendly, which has caused greater bycatch including sharks, turtles and other oceanic fish. Fishermen no longer follow dolphins, but concentrate their fisheries around floating objects such as fish aggregation devices, also known as FADs, which attract large populations of other organisms. Measures taken thus far to satisfy the public demand to protect dolphins can be potentially damaging to other species as well.[39]

Aquaculture

Increasing quantities of high-grade tuna caught at sea are reared in net pens and fed bait fish. In Australia, former fishermen raise southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) and another bluefin species.[40] Farming its close relative, the Atlantic bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, is beginning in the Mediterranean, North America and Japan. Hawaii approved permits for the first U.S. offshore farming of bigeye tuna in water 1300feet deep in 2009.[41]

Japan is the biggest tuna consuming nation and is also the leader in tuna farming research.[42] Japan first successfully farm-hatched and raised bluefin tuna in 1979. In 2002, it succeeded in completing the reproduction cycle and in 2007, completed a third generation.[43] [44] [45] The farm breed is known as Kindai tuna. Kindai is the contraction of Kinki University in Japanese (Kinki daigaku).[46] In 2009, Clean Seas, an Australian company which has been receiving assistance from Kinki University[47] [48] [49] managed to breed southern bluefin tuna in captivity and was awarded the second place in World's Best Invention of 2009 by Time magazine.[50] [51]

Food

See main article: List of tuna dishes.

Fresh and frozen

The fresh or frozen flesh of tuna is widely regarded as a delicacy in most areas where it is shipped, being prepared in a variety of ways. When served as a steak, the meat of most species is known for its thickness and tough texture. In the U.K., supermarkets began flying in fresh tuna steaks in the late 1990s, which helped to increase the popularity of using fresh tuna in cooking; by 2009, celebrity chefs regularly featured fresh tuna in salads, wraps, and char-grilled dishes.[52]

Served raw

Various species of tuna are often served raw in Japanese cuisine as sushi or sashimi.[52]

Commercial sashimi tuna may have their coloration fixated by pumping carbon monoxide (CO) into bags containing the tuna, and holding it at 4 °C. For a 2-inch tuna steak, this requires 24 hours. The fish is then vacuum sealed and frozen. In Japan, color fixation using CO is prohibited.[53]

Canned

Tuna is canned in edible oils, in brine, in water, and in various sauces. Tuna may be processed and labeled as "solid", "chunked" ("chunk") or "flaked". When tuna is canned and packaged for sale, the product is sometimes called tuna fish (U.S.), a calque (loan translation) from the German Thunfisch. Canned tuna is sometimes used as food for pets, especially cats.

AustraliaCanned tuna was first produced in Australia in 1903 and quickly became popular.[54]

In the early 1980s canned tuna in Australia was most likely southern bluefin, it was usually yellowfin, skipjack, or tongol (labelled "northern bluefin" or "longtail").

Australian standards once required cans of tuna to contain at least 51% tuna, but those regulations were dropped in 2003.[55] [56] The remaining weight is usually oil or water.

United StatesThe product became more plentiful in the United States in the late 1940s. In 1950, 8,500,000 pounds of canned tuna were produced, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture classified it as a "plentiful food".[57]

In the United States, 52% of canned tuna is used for sandwiches; 22% for tuna salads; and 15% for tuna casseroles and dried, prepackaged meal kits, such as General Mills's Tuna Helper line.[58] Other canned tuna dishes include tuna melts (a type of sandwich where the tuna is mixed with mayonnaise and served on bread with cheese melted on top); salade niçoise (a salad made of tuna, olives, green beans, potatoes, hard-boiled eggs and anchovy dressing); and tuna burgers (served on buns).

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates canned tuna (see part c).[59]

PrecookedAs tunas are often caught far from where they are processed, poor interim conservation can lead to spoilage. Tuna is typically gutted by hand, and later precooked for prescribed times of 45 minutes to three hours. The fish are then cleaned and filleted, canned (and sealed), with the dark lateral blood meat often separately canned for pet food (cat or dog). The sealed can is then heated under pressure (called "retort cooking") for 2–4 hours.[60] This process kills any bacteria, but retains the histamine that may have been produced by those bacteria, and so may still taste spoiled. The international standard sets the maximum histamine level at 200 milligrams per kilogram. An Australian study of 53 varieties of unflavored canned tuna found none to exceed the safe histamine level, although some had "off" flavors.
Light and whiteIn some markets, depending upon the color of the flesh of the tuna species, the can is marked as "light" or "white" meat, with "light" meaning a greyish pink color and "white" meaning a light pink color. In the United States, only albacore can legally be sold in canned form as "white meat tuna";[61] in other countries, yellowfin is also acceptable.
Ventresca tunaVentresca tuna (from ventre, the Italian word for belly),[62] is a luxury canned tuna,[63] from the fatty bluefin tuna belly, also used in sushi as toro.[64] [65]

Nutrition

Canned light tuna in oil is 29% protein, 8% fat, 60% water, and contains no carbohydrates, while providing 200 calories in a 100 gram reference amount (table). It is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of phosphorus (44% DV) and vitamin D (45% DV), and a moderate source of iron (11% DV).

Mercury and health

See also: Mercury in fish and Got Mercury?. Mercury content in tuna can vary widely. Among those calling for improved warnings about mercury in tuna is the American Medical Association, which adopted a policy that physicians should help make their patients more aware of the potential risks.[66] A study published in 2008 found that mercury distribution in the meat of farmed tuna is inversely related to the lipid content, suggesting that higher lipid concentration within edible tissues of tuna raised in captivity might, other factors remaining equal, have a diluting effect on mercury content.[67] Mackerel tuna is one species of tuna that is lower in mercury concentration than skipjack or yellowfin,[68] but this species is known as "black meat" or "dark meat" tuna, which is a lower grade for canning because of the color, unfavorable flavor, and poor yield.[69]

In March 2004, the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children limit their intake of tuna and other predatory fish.[70] The Environmental Protection Agency provides guidelines on how much canned tuna is safe to eat. Roughly speaking, the guidelines recommend one 6oz can of light tuna per week for individuals weighing less than 110lbs, and two cans per week for those who weigh more.[71] In 2007, it was reported that some canned light tuna such as yellowfin tuna[72] is significantly higher in mercury than skipjack, and caused Consumers Union and other activist groups to advise pregnant women to refrain from consuming canned tuna.[73] In 2009, a California appeals court upheld a ruling that canned tuna does not need warning labels as the methylmercury is naturally occurring.[74]

A January 2008 report revealed potentially dangerous levels of mercury in certain varieties of sushi tuna, reporting levels "so high that the Food and Drug Administration could take legal action to remove the fish from the market."[75]

Management and conservation

The main tuna fishery management bodies are the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission, the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission, the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas, and the Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna.[76] The five gathered for the first time in Kobe, Japan in January 2007. Environmental organizations made submissions[77] on risks to fisheries and species. The meeting concluded with an action plan drafted by some 60 countries or areas. Concrete steps include issuing certificates of origin to prevent illegal fishing and greater transparency in the setting of regional fishing quotas. The delegates were scheduled to meet at another joint meeting in January or February 2009 in Europe.[78]

In 2010, Greenpeace International added the albacore, bigeye tuna, Pacific bluefin tuna, Atlantic bluefin tuna, southern bluefin tuna, and yellowfin tuna to its seafood red list, which are fish "commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."[79] [80]

Bluefin tuna have been widely accepted as being severely overfished, with some stocks at risk of collapse.[81] [82] According to the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (a global, nonprofit partnership between the tuna industry, scientists, and the World Wide Fund for Nature), Indian Ocean yellowfin tuna, Pacific Ocean (eastern and western) bigeye tuna, and North Atlantic albacore tuna are all overfished. In April 2009, no stock of skipjack tuna (which makes up roughly 60% of all tuna fished worldwide) was considered to be overfished.[83]

The BBC documentary South Pacific, which first aired in May 2009, stated that, should fishing in the Pacific continue at its current rate, populations of all tuna species could collapse within five years. It highlighted huge Japanese and European tuna fishing vessels, sent to the South Pacific international waters after overfishing their own fish stocks to the point of collapse.[84]

A 2010 tuna fishery assessment report, released in January 2012 by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, supported this finding, recommending that all tuna fishing should be reduced or limited to current levels and that limits on skipjack fishing be considered.[85]

Research[86] indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the tuna in the Indian Ocean, where rapid warming of the ocean has resulted in a reduction of marine phytoplankton. The bigeye tuna catch rates have also declined abruptly during the past half century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species.

See also

Further references

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Block . Barbara A. . Booth . David . Carey . Francis G. . Direct measurement of swimming speeds and depth of blue marlin . Journal of Experimental Biology . 1992 . 166 . 278 . 10.1242/jeb.166.1.267 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150904044712/http://jeb.biologists.org/content/166/1/267.full.pdf . 4 September 2015 . live . 19 September 2012 . 0022-0949.
  2. Svendsen . Morten B. S.. Domenici . Paolo . Marras . Stefano . Krause . Jens . Boswell . Kevin M. . Rodriguez-Pinto . Ivan . Wilson . Alexander D. M. . Kurvers . Ralf H. J. M. . Viblanc . Paul E. . Finger . Jean S. . Steffensen . John F. . dmy-all . Maximum swimming speeds of sailfish and three other large marine predatory fish species based on muscle contraction time and stride length: a myth revisited . Biology Open . October 2016 . en . 5 . 10 . 1415–1419 . 10.1242/bio.019919 . 27543056 . 5087677 . 2046-6390 . free.
  3. tuna . American Heritage Dictionary . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company . 2015 . dmy-all . 24 May 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150524153815/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=tuna&submit.x=0&submit.y=0 . 24 May 2015 . dead.
  4. thunnus . Lewis . Charlton T. . Short . Charles . A Latin Dictionary . Perseus Digital Library . 1879 .
  5. .
  6. Collette . B.B. . 5th Indo-Pacific Fish Conference: Nouméa, New Caledonia, 3–8 November 1997 . Séret, B. . Sire, J.Y. . Mackerels, molecules, and morphology. 1999. Société Française d'Ichtyologie [u.a.] . Proceedings . Paris. 978-2-9507330-5-4 . 149–164 .
  7. Tanaka . Y. . K. . Satoh . M. . Iwahashi . H. . Yamada . Growth-dependent recruitment of Pacific bluefin tuna Thunnus orientalis in the northwestern Pacific Ocean . Marine Ecology Progress Series . 2006 . 319 . 225–235 . 10.3354/meps319225. 2006MEPS..319..225T . free.
  8. Web site: Thunnus - an overview ScienceDirect Topics. 2021-08-17. www.sciencedirect.com.
  9. Collette, B. . Amorim, A.F. . Boustany, A. . Carpenter, K.E. . de Oliveira Leite Jr. . N. . Di Natale, A. . Fox, W. . Fredou, F.L. . Graves, J. . Viera Hazin, F.H. . Juan Jorda, M. . Minte Vera, C. . Miyabe, N. . Nelson, R. . Oxenford, H. . Sun, C. . Teixeira Lessa, R.P. . Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. . Uozumi, Y. . 2011 . Allothunnus fallai . 2011 . e.T170349A6761139 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170349A6761139.en . 12 November 2021.
  10. Collette, B. . Acero, A. . Amorim, A.F. . Boustany, A. . Canales Ramirez, C. . Cardenas, G. . Carpenter, K.E. . de Oliveira Leite Jr. . N. . Di Natale, A. . Fox, W. . Fredou, F.L. . Graves, J. . Guzman-Mora, A. . Viera Hazin, F.H. . Juan Jorda, M. . Kada, O. . Minte Vera, C. . Miyabe, N. . Montano Cruz, R. . Nelson, R. . Oxenford, H. . Salas, E. . Schaefer, K. . Serra, R. . Sun, C. . Teixeira Lessa, R.P. . Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. . Uozumi, Y. . Yanez, E. . 2011 . Auxis rochei . 2011 . e.T170355A6765188 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170355A6765188.en . 12 November 2021.
  11. Collette, B. . Acero, A. . Amorim, A.F. . Boustany, A. . Canales Ramirez, C. . Cardenas, G. . Carpenter, K.E. . de Oliveira Leite Jr. . N. . Di Natale, A. . Fox, W. . Fredou, F.L. . Graves, J. . Guzman-Mora, A. . Viera Hazin, F.H. . Juan Jorda, M. . Kada, O. . Minte Vera, C. . Miyabe, N. . Montano Cruz, R. . Nelson, R. . Oxenford, H. . Salas, E. . Schaefer, K. . Serra, R. . Sun, C. . Teixeira Lessa, R.P. . Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. . Uozumi, Y. . Yanez, E. . 2011 . Auxis thazard . 2011 . e.T170344A6757270 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170344A6757270.en . 12 November 2021.
  12. Collette, B. . Chang, S.-K. . Fox, W. . Juan Jorda, M. . Miyabe, N. . Nelson, R. . Uozumi, Y. . 2011 . Euthynnus affinis . 2011 . e.T170336A6753804 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170336A6753804.en . 12 November 2021.
  13. Collette, B. . Amorim, A.F. . Boustany, A. . Carpenter, K.E. . de Oliveira Leite Jr. . N. . Di Natale, A. . Fox, W. . Fredou, F.L. . Graves, J. . Viera Hazin, F.H. . Juan Jorda, M. . Kada, O. . Minte Vera, C. . Miyabe, N. . Nelson, R. . Oxenford, H. . Teixeira Lessa, R.P. . Pires Ferreira Travassos, P.E. . 2011 . Euthynnus alletteratus . 2011 . e.T170345A6759394 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170345A6759394.en . 12 November 2021.
  14. Collette, B. . Acero, A. . Canales Ramirez, C. . Cardenas, G. . Carpenter, K.E. . Di Natale, A. . Guzman-Mora, A. . Montano Cruz, R. . Nelson, R. . Schaefer, K. . Serra, R. . Yanez, E. . 2011 . Euthynnus lineatus . 2011 . e.T170320A6747016 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-2.RLTS.T170320A6747016.en . 12 November 2021.
  15. Collette, B.B. . Boustany, A. . Fox, W. . Graves, J. . Juan Jorda, M. . Restrepo, V. . 2021 . Katsuwonus pelamis . 2021 . e.T170310A46644566 . 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T170310A46644566.en . 12 November 2021.
  16. Book: . n.d. . Biological characteristics of tuna . . 17 December 2022 .
  17. Web site: Gibbs . E. . Fact Sheet: Tuna #P1412 . Rhode Island Sea Grant . 20 September 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120712070954/http://seagrant.gso.uri.edu/factsheets/tuna.html . 12 July 2012.
  18. Web site: Argo . Emily . Countershading . 21 April 2017 . Fishionary . . 17 December 2022.
  19. Sepulveda . C.A. . Dickson . K.A. . Bernal . D. . Graham . J.B. . Elevated red myotomal muscle temperatures in the most basal tuna species, Allothunnus fallai . Journal of Fish Biology . 1 July 2008 . 73 . 1 . 241–249 . 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2008.01931.x . 2 November 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20130207000108/http://216.172.180.32/~pier/userdocs/images/files/scientific_publications/Sepulveda%20et%20al.%202008%20.pdf . 7 February 2013.
  20. Cech . J.J. . Laurs . R.M. . Graham . J.B. . 1984 . Temperature-induced changes in blood gas equilibria in the albacore, Thunnus alalunga, a warm-bodied tuna . Journal of Experimental Biology . 109 . 1 . 21–34 . 10.1242/jeb.109.1.21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150904044712/http://jeb.biologists.org/content/109/1/21.full.pdf . 2015-09-04 . live. Oxygenated blood that has just reached thermal equilibrium with ambient sea water in the gills enters the rete on the arterial side, while warmed, deoxygenated, and carbon dioxide-laden blood enters on the venous end. In the rete, countercurrent flow and the high surface area contact between the two blood supplies facilitate the transfer of nearly all of the metabolic heat in the venous blood to arterial blood, thus conserving muscle temperature. After exiting the rete, arterial blood continues to the red muscle capillary beds, and cooled venous blood flows to the gills where carbon dioxide is excreted and oxygen is loaded.. free .
  21. Landeira-Fernandez . A.M. . Morrissette . J.M. . Blank . J.M. . Block . B.A. . Temperature dependence of the Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2) in the ventricles of tuna and mackerel. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 16 October 2003. 286. 2. R398–R404. 10.1152/ajpregu.00392.2003. 14604842.
  22. Iosilevskii. G. Weihs. D. Speed limits on swimming of fishes and cetaceans. Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 6 March 2008. 5. 20. 329–338. 10.1098/rsif.2007.1073. 17580289. Lacking pain receptors on their caudal fins, scombrids may temporarily cross the cavitation limit, and cavitation-induced damage has been observed (Kishinouye 1923); on the other hand, delphinids probably cannot cross it without pain (Lang 1966). 2607394.
  23. Web site: Status of the World Fisheries for Tuna: Section A-1 – Introduction . . 15 April 2009 . dmy-all . 10 November 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100327021649/http://www.iss-foundation.org/files/b45a4eb2-f9d7-4ed6-87a1-2efe2519baf6/ISSF_A-1%20Introduction.pdf . 27 March 2010 .
  24. News: Bluefin Tuna Plundering Catches Up With Japan . Bradford . Gillian . ABC News . 16 October 2006 . 11 August 2013.
  25. News: Global approach now favored for marine conservation . Eilperin . Juliet . Washington Post . 29 November 2009 . 11 August 2013.
  26. News: Japan warned tuna stocks face extinction. Justin . McCurry. The Guardian. 22 January 2007. 2 April 2008. London.
  27. News: Wright . Hillel . Are Japan's fish lovers eating tuna to extinction? . . 9 January 2011. 7 . 11 August 2013.
  28. News: Price of tuna nosedives at famous Tokyo auction despite dwindling stocks . The Toronto Star. 8 February 2014. 5 January 2014.
  29. News: Tuna hits highest price in nine years at Tokyo auction . BBC News . 5 January 2010 . 19 September 2012 . Roland . Buerk.
  30. Web site: Fish story: Big tuna sells for record $396,000. NBCNews.com. 19 September 2012. 5 January 2011.
  31. Web site: A single fish sells for nearly three-quarters of a million dollars. NBCNews.com. 19 September 2012. 5 January 2012.
  32. News: A bluefin tuna sells for record $1.76M in Tokyo. usatoday.com. 4 January 2013. 4 January 2013.
  33. News: Tuna sells for record $3 million in auction at Tokyo's new fish market . 2019-01-05. Reuters . dmy-all. 2019-09-04. en.
  34. Web site: Man catches 881-pound tuna, seized by feds | The Sideshow – Yahoo! News . News.yahoo.com . dmy-all . 2011-11-15 . 2012-06-16.
  35. Web site: Dorney . Sean . Nauru defends whaling vote. 28/06/2005. ABC News Online . Abc.net.au . dmy-all . 2005-06-28 . 2012-04-12.
  36. Web site: Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission . Australia Proposals to Address the Impact of Purse Seine Fishing Activity on Cetaceans . WCPFC . 11 April 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20121101065208/http://wcpfc.int/system/files/documents/meetings/regular-sessions-commission/eighth-regular-session/delegation-proposals-and-paper/WCPFC8-2011-DP-15B-%28Rev-2%29-Australia-Proposals-Address-Impact-Purse-Seine-Fishing-Activity-Cetaceans.pdf . 1 November 2012.
  37. Web site: ENSENADA: El Puerto del Atun . Journalism.berkeley.edu . dmy-all . 2010-09-22 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100524134557/http://journalism.berkeley.edu/projects/border/ensenada.html . 2010-05-24.
  38. Web site: Dolphin-safe tuna. Whale and Dolphin Conservation. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130927135421/http://www.wdcs-na.org/text/story_details.php?select=308 . dmy-all . 2013-09-27.
  39. Web site: Southern Fried Science. The ecological disaster that is dolphin safe tuna . 16 February 2009 .
  40. Doolette, DJ. Craig, D. amp. Tuna farm diving in South Australia. South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal. 29. 2. 1999. 0813-1988. 16986801. 2008-08-17 . dmy-all. https://web.archive.org/web/20100107101138/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/6006. 2010-01-07. usurped.
  41. News: Hawaii regulators approve first US tuna farm. McAvoy. Audrey. Associated Press. 24 October 2009. 11 August 2013.
  42. Web site: LiveScience. Breeding the Overfished Bluefin Tuna. Susannah F. Locke. 17 March 2008. 13 May 2013.
  43. News: The holy grail of fish breeding.
  44. Web site: Cultivation, seedling production, and selective breeding of bluefin tuna and other fish at the Kinki University Fisheries Laboratory . Flku.jp . dmy-all . 2010-09-22.
  45. News: The rarest tuna of all – Japan's farmed Kindai. Carolyn . Jung . dmy-all . 2008-05-21 . The San Francisco Chronicle .
  46. Web site: Raisfeld . Robin . Can a Farmed Bluefin Tuna Save the Planet? – New York Magazine . Nymag.com . dmy-all . 2008-05-04 . 2012-06-16.
  47. Web site: FNArena . FNArena . dmy-all . 2009-05-15 . 2010-09-22.
  48. Web site: Stateline South Australia . Abc.net.au . dmy-all . 2010-09-22 . https://web.archive.org/web/20121113102602/http://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fstateline%2Fsa%2Fcontent%2F2005%2Fs1509579.htm . 2012-11-13 . dead.
  49. News: Clean Seas teams up with Japan's Kinki Uni for tuna research . Nigel . Austin . dmy-all . 2008-09-23 . The Advertiser . 24 November 2009 . 2 December 2012 . https://archive.today/20121202225644/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/sa-business-journal/clean-seas-signs-tuna-research-deal/story-e6fredel-1111117560776 . dead .
  50. News: The Tank-Bred Tuna. https://web.archive.org/web/20091115062251/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1934027_1934003_1933946,00.html. dead. 15 November 2009. The 50 Best Inventions of 2009. Time.com. 21 January 2013 . dmy-all . 2009-11-12.
  51. Web site: Aussies Win 'Best Invention' Award. ThinkingAustralia.com. 21 January 2013. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130403110610/http://www.thinkingaustralia.com/news/brief_view.asp?id=1525. 3 April 2013.
  52. Web site: How Tuna Conquered the World . Hickman . Martin . 9 June 2009 . www.independent.co.uk . The Independent . 30 January 2019 . 31 January 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190131100056/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/how-tuna-conquered-the-world-1700127.html . dead .
  53. Book: Handbook of Frozen Foods. CRC Press. Hui, Y. H. . etal . 2004. 328. 0203022009.
  54. Choice

    Jan/Feb 2004.

  55. Choice, August 2003.
  56. http://www.choice.com.au/viewArticle.aspx?id=104101&catId=100406&tid=100008&p=2&title=Test:+Canned+tuna+(archived) Test: Canned tuna (archived) Canned or conned?
  57. News: Casa-Emellosthe. Ruth P. . News of Food: Tuna Provides Tempting Dishes; Canned Fish Plentiful Now and a Good Buy for Budget-Minded . . 30. March 1, 1951 . April 17, 2021 .
  58. "Tuna". Modern Marvels, 4 February 2010.
  59. Web site: CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 . Accessdata.fda.gov . dmy-all . 2010-09-22.
  60. Web site: The tuna processing industry. U.S. Department of Labor. 11 August 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130812124832/http://www.dol.gov/whd/as/sec3.htm. 12 August 2013. dead.
  61. Ellis, Richard. Tuna: A Love Story. New York: Random House, 2009, p. 119.
  62. Web site: Rosengarten . David . Name That Tuna! The Little-Known, Sexy Varieties that Are Vastly Superior to the Supermarket Cans . Wine4Food . 14 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210514215614/https://www.wine4food.com/food/name-that-tuna-the-little-known-sexy-varieties-that-are-vastly-superior-to-the-supermarket-cans/ . 14 May 2021 . 31 July 2012 . What is ventresca? The name comes from the Italian word for belly, which is "ventre." Yup, you guessed it, ventresca is canned tuna made from the tuna's belly, from the sexy, velvety hunk known in sushi bars as "toro." Happily, there are a good many ventresca brands in the U.S. right now from Italy and Spain. (Originally Published: ROSENGARTEN REPORT, April 2003.).
  63. Web site: Luxury Canned Tuna . www.splendidtable.org . 14 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210514214210/https://www.splendidtable.org/story/2010/11/18/luxury-canned-tuna . 14 May 2021 . November 18, 2010 . Ventresca Tuna: This tuna comes from the belly of the fish, that velvety chunk known in sushi bars as toro. It has deep, buttery, complex flavors and a creamy texture. This one stands alone. The less you do to it the better. Be prepared to pay dearly for this unabashed luxury.
  64. Book: Fraioli . James O. . Sato . Chef Kaz . 2008 . The Complete Idiot's Guide to Sushi and Sashimi . New York, NY . Alpha Books . 978-1-59257-782-8.
  65. Web site: Sushi Menu . . 2007 . Sushi Encyclopedia . 12 February 2016 . The sushi menu consists of basic Edo style sushi and they are grouped in their styles. . 20 May 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170520055030/http://www.sushiencyclopedia.com/sushi_menu.html . dead .
  66. News: How safe is tuna? . Chicago Tribune . Sam . Roe . Michael . Hawthorne . 2005-12-13 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20091126023316/http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/health/chi-0512130114dec13,0,4864620,full.story . dmy-all . 2009-11-26.
  67. Balshaws . S. . J.W. . Edwards . K.E. . Ross . B.J. . Daughtry . Mercury distribution in the muscular tissue of farmed southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) is inversely related to the lipid content of tissues . Food Chemistry . 111 . 3 . 616–621 . December 2008. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.04.041.
  68. Sompongchaiyakul. Penjai. Hantow1. 2010. An assessment of mercury concentration in fish tissues caught from three compartments of the Bay of Bengal. https://web.archive.org/web/20180821062638/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/aa1b/e647c6109fe46c005c6797f6adb28b562bfc.pdf. dead. 2018-08-21. Harper S, O'Meara D, Booth S, Zeller D, Pauly D (Eds) Fisheries Catches for the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Since 1950, Vol 16, Report to the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem Project. 1. 41523999.
  69. Balachandran KK, Vijayan PK, Joseph J. 1982. Improving the acceptability of canned Mackerel tuna (Euthynnus affinis). https://web.archive.org/web/20180821093834/http://aquaticcommons.org/18382/1/FT19.1_059.pdf . 2018-08-21 . live. Fish Technology. 19. 59–60.
  70. Web site: What You Need to Know About Mercury in Fish and Shellfish. March 2004. 2007-05-19. 19 May 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070519060018/http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/admehg3.html. dead.
  71. Web site: PROTECT YOURSELF AND YOUR FAMILY: Eating Tuna Safely. 2012-04-02. 2012-04-02. 17 June 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120617174655/http://www.nrdc.org/health/effects/mercury/tuna.asp. dead.
  72. News: FDA to check tuna. 2007-06-21 . dmy-all. Chicago Tribune.
  73. Web site: Mercury in tuna. June 2006. dmy-all. 2007-05-19. 10 April 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070410020238/http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/food/tuna-safety/overview/0607_tuna_ov.htm. dead.
  74. People ex rel. Brown v. Tri-Union Seafoods, LLC . 171 . Cal.App.4th . 1549 . Cal. App. Ct. . 2009 . https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?hl=en&amp;as_sdt=40000006&amp;case=14761508866702574858&amp;scilh=0 . 7 October 2014 .
  75. News: High Mercury Levels Are Found in Tuna Sushi. New York Times. 23 January 2008. 11 September 2009. Marian. Burros.
  76. News: WWF demands tuna monitoring system. 2007-01-19 . dmy-all. 2008-05-19. Melbourne. The Age.
  77. Web site: Briefing: Joint Tuna RFMO Meeting, Kobe 2007 . dmy-all . 2007-01-23 . 2008-05-19 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080323185155/http://oceans.greenpeace.org/en/documents-reports/rfmo-kobe . 23 March 2008.
  78. Web site: Conference approves global plan to save tuna stocks . . 2007-01-26 . 2008-05-10 . dmy-all . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080111070803/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200701/s1834563.htm . 11 January 2008.
  79. Web site: Greenpeace International Seafood Red list . Greenpeace.org . 2003-03-17 . 2010-09-22 . dmy-all . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20100820034707/http://www.greenpeace.org/international/seafood/red-list-of-species . 20 August 2010.
  80. News: Tuna's End . Paul . Greenberg . dmy-all . 2010-06-21 . The New York Times.
  81. News: Last rites for a marine marvel? . Richard . Black . BBC News . 17 October 2007 . dmy-all . 17 October 2007 .
  82. Ito, Masami, "Does Japan's affair with tuna mean loving it to extinction?", Japan Times, 31 August 2010, p. 3.
  83. Web site: Status of the World Fisheries for Tuna: Section A-2 – Summary . ISSF . 15 April 2009 . dmy-all . 10 November 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100327022746/http://www.iss-foundation.org/files/e71afd66-086a-41c7-a71c-c2935687dcef/ISSF_A-2%20Summary%20%283%29.pdf . 27 March 2010 .
  84. Fragile Paradise . South Pacific . Produced and directed by Jonathan Clay . BBC . BBC Two . dmy-all . 2009-06-14.
  85. Web site: Tuna overfishing continues. Cook Islands News. 12 January 2012 . dmy-all. 2012-05-19. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20131115074636/http://www.cookislandsnews.com/2012/January/Wed18/environment.htm. 2013-11-15.
  86. Roxy. Mathew Koll . Modi . Aditi. Murtugudde. Raghu. Valsala. Vinu. Panickal. Swapna. Prasanna Kumar . S.. Ravichandran. M.. Vichi. Marcello. Lévy. Marina . dmy-all . 2016-01-28 . A reduction in marine primary productivity driven by rapid warming over the tropical Indian Ocean. Geophysical Research Letters. en. 43. 2. 2015GL066979. 10.1002/2015GL066979. 2016GeoRL..43..826R. 1944-8007. https://web.archive.org/web/20190103110538/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01259414/file/Roxy_2016_A_reduction_in.pdf . 2019-01-03 . live. free.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Tuna".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.