or refers to both the Japanese genre of music originating from Tsugaru Peninsula in present-day Aomori Prefecture and the instrument it is performed with. It is performed throughout Japan, though associations with the Tsugaru remain strong. is considered the most recognized genre of music, and has enjoyed multiple periods of popularity in Japan.
While it is clear that the originated from China through Okinawa in the 16th century CE, the specific developers of are not known with certainty, largely because written records of its development were not kept nor was it ever formally recognized by the Japanese government. What is known is that originated from a small peninsula due west of present-day Aomori Prefecture called Tsugaru. In addition, some researchers have conjectured on the style's origins based on available evidence. There is some consensus that the style was developed by homeless and blind individuals called .
One scholar, Daijō Kazuo, proposed that the genre originated from a named Nitabō on the basis of interviews of musicians and their families. According to his research, Nitabō acquired and modified a in 1877 for which he adopted a different playing style. Nitabō rounded off the plectrum of the instrument such that it was shaped like a rice paddle. In addition, he adopted a playing style with the held upright, included the area around the bridge as the playing area, and incorporated beating and slapping the strings in contrast to exclusive use of the plectrum. However, other scholars, such as Gerald Groemer, argue that due to a lack of documentation, the account advanced by Kazuo may not be entirely accurate.
Nitabō had multiple blind students, such as Kinobo and Chōsakubo, who contributed to the development of the style. Nitabō's last student, Shirakawa Gunpachirō, performed outside of the Tsugaru region as a part of a folk performance troupe. Gunpachirō also performed in professional settings, such as in concert halls in Tokyo. As a result of his successes, became popular in the 1920s, but its popularity waned with the onset of the Second Sino-Japanese War later in the decade.
During 1955–1965, many performers of the genre moved to urban centers in Japan such as Tokyo. This migration was part of a larger movement due to a boom in the traditional arts in Japan. enjoyed another bout of popularity when Gunpachirō performed with star Michiya Mihashi at the Nihon Theater in Tokyo in 1959. As a result of this mass exposure to the genre, younger practitioners of the genre began to emerge. Takahashi Chikuzan, who was also a, was also a highly regarded practitioner of the genre and began touring Japan in 1964.
is played on a larger called with a thicker neck and thicker strings than those used for most other styles. is easy to recognize by its percussive quality (the plectrum striking the body of the instrument on each stroke) and the lilt of the rhythms performed. Unlike most other Japanese music, some pieces are in triple time, though the three beats are not accentuated in the manner of Western music.
has a large and steadily growing repertory. Interviews with noted performers such as Takahashi Chikuzan and Yamada Chisato and recordings issued by stars of the past allow one to produce the following table. Most of the titles given below exist in two versions: in song form (a vocal line with and drum accompaniment) and as a solo piece (see sixth group below). Recently, younger performers have been attempting to combine playing styles or motives with jazz, rock, and other forms of more commercial music. With the exception of arrangements classified as, these pieces are usually considered to be traditional.
The is characterized by many distinct phrases and styles. In acrobatic technique, improvising is the feature. The player will often strike the strings and skin very hard and fast with the . They use only left index and ring finger traditionally, and the scale is basically pentatonic (do re mi sol la). A technique unique to the style in recent years is the tremolo played with the back of the without hitting the skin.
Group A presents songs that are only rarely heard today, though they were once the mainstay of the repertoire of itinerant, often blind, musician-beggars known as . At the start of the 20th century, these were gradually displaced by shorter non-narrative songs. The (and, in time, other performers) tended to concentrate their efforts on some five favorite songs (Group C). By the middle of the 20th century three songs (Group B) and their versions had become the core of the repertoire, which they remain today. Indeed, ""—in a version that the old would probably not even recognize—has today become virtually a symbol of the timeless "spirit of Tsugaru".
The songs of group D—though no less traditional than those of groups A, B, and C—were not, it seems, a major part of the repertoire. Instead, they tended to be sung by non-professionals, generally without accompaniment. But with the "boom" after World War II, these songs began to receive renewed attention. accompaniments were composed or arranged by such performers as Takahashi Chikuzan (Takahashi 1976:142). Somewhat earlier there had been a nationwide movement to produce "new folk songs" (see Hughes 1985:144-54, 281–309; Kojima 1970), resulting in the songs listed in Group E. More recently still, solo versions of the songs of Group D have been arranged. Solo versions of the older songs have become the center of the repertoire, leading to the development of long solo improvisations (Group F) and ensemble playing (Group G).
One of the most interesting characteristics of the repertoire is what might be termed its cumulative nature. As can be seen from the listing of songs in Group B, newer variants of songs tend to coexist alongside older versions, rather than replacing them. Although the older songs and their accompaniments or solo versions have no doubt themselves been somewhat transformed from what they were many decades ago (and they of course were never an entirely uniform to begin with), it remains certain that the "old", "middle", and "new" versions are differentiated not merely stylistically but also historically. Their structural differences contain, as it were, a congealed history.
Daijō Kazuo
Daijō has spent most of his life studying The and has met many of the old . His writings, often in semi-novelistic form, emphasize that everything originated with one "". Most scholars reject this unilinear derivation of the genre.
Groemer, Gerald
The new edition includes a good deal of newly discovered historical information and brings the volume up to date. Currently only available from amazon.co.jp, it remains the most detailed study of to date in any language. Includes a translation of Takahashi Chikuzan's autobiography (Takahashi 1976)
Hughes, David
(introduction to Japanese folk song in general).
Johnson, Henry
Kimura Genzō
Kojima Tomiko
(Study of the "new folk song" movement)
Matsuno Takeo
Suda Naoyuki and Anthony Rausch
(Abridged translation of Daijō 1995 and includes some more general anthropological material).
Takahashi Chikuzan
(Autobiography of one of the greats of the past. Translated in Groemer 1991, 1999, and 2012).