List of European tropical cyclones explained

The effects of tropical cyclones in Europe and their extratropical remnants include strong winds, heavy rainfall, and in rare instances, tornadoes or snowfall. Only two modern cyclones are officially regarded as directly impacting mainland Europe while still fully tropical or subtropical: Hurricane Vince in 2005, which struck southwestern Spain as a tropical depression; and Subtropical Storm Alpha in 2020, which made landfall in northern Portugal at peak intensity. It is possible that Hurricane Debbie in 1961, may have been tropical still, when it made landfall in northwestern Ireland, but this is disputed. It is believed that a hurricane struck Europe in 1842.

Atlantic hurricanes in the subtropical latitudes (i.e., north of the Cape Verde region) generally do not form east of the 30th meridian west, and those that do typically continue to the west. Storms can move around the Bermuda high and turn to the northeast and affect Europe. Several extratropical cyclones have struck Europe, and they were called colloquially "hurricanes". Some of these European windstorms had hurricane-force winds of greater than . Those storms are not included in this list.[1]

Climatology and predictions

Advanced meteorological observation stations and ship reports allowed Atlantic hurricanes to be tracked for extended durations, including to the European mainland in some cases, beginning in the 1860s. Most storms that affected Europe have done so from August to October, which is the climatological peak of the Atlantic hurricane season. In a survey of such European tropical cyclones from 1961 to 2010, Dr. Kieran Hickey observed that the storms generally formed west of Africa and recurved to the northeast, or formed off the east coast of the United States and proceeded eastward. Ireland and the United Kingdom experience the most effects, due to their positions far to the west of the rest of Europe. Countries that are as far to the east as Estonia[2] and Russia[3] have experienced tropical cyclone impacts.

Tropical-like systems, referred to as "medicanes,"[4] are occasionally observed over the Mediterranean. Several of these storms have developed eye-like features and hurricane-force winds; however, their nature is contrary to that of a tropical cyclone. The majority of these storm originate from deep, cold-core lows which they do not fully disassociate from. Additionally, unlike tropical systems, sea surface temperatures above are not required for their development.[5]

The Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute predicted that by the year 2100, global warming would increase greatly the threat of hurricane-force winds to western Europe from former tropical cyclones and hybrid storms, the latter similar to Hurricane Sandy in 2012, in a paper published in April 2013.[6] One model predicted an increase from 2 to 13 in the number of cyclones with hurricane-force winds in the waters offshore western Europe. The study suggested that conditions favorable for tropical cyclones would expand to the east. A separate study based out of University of Castilla–La Mancha predicted that hurricanes would develop in the Mediterranean Sea in Septembers by the year 2100, which would threaten countries in southern Europe.[7]

Storms

Pre-1900

1900–1980s

1990s

2000s

2010s

2020s

See also

Notes and References

  1. Book: David Longshore. Encyclopedia of Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones, New Edition. 110. New York. Facts on File. 1998. 2013-06-19. 9781438118796. 2023-08-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828202731/https://books.google.com/books?id=8kXwskQHBLoC&q=tropical+lili+1996+honduras&pg=PA110. live.
  2. Web site: Ingrid Teesalu. Gales Leave 900 Households Blacked Out. err.ee. September 14, 2011. September 9, 2020. August 28, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828202748/https://news.err.ee/api/statistics/articleStatistics. live.
  3. Web site: KM Онлайн. September 15, 2011. September 9, 2020. ru:Ослабевший ураган "Катя" добрался до Санкт-Петербурга. https://www.km.ru/v-rossii/2011/09/15/rossiya/oslabevshii-uragan-katya-dobralsya-do-sankt-peterburga. ru.
  4. M. Tous. R. Romero. amp. International Journal of Climatology. 10.1002/joc.3428. 2011-12-13. 2013-06-29. Meteorological environments associated with medicane development. 2013IJCli..33....1T. 33. 1. 1–14. 129155891. 2023-07-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20230715064755/https://www.academia.edu/2526660. live.
  5. L. Fita. R. Romero. A. Luque. Kerry Emmanuel. R. Ramis. amp. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences. 2007-01-15. Analysis of the environments of seven Mediterranean tropical-like storms using an axisymmetric, nonhydrostatic, cloud resolving model. 41–56. 7. 1. 2007NHESS...7...41F. 10.5194/nhess-7-41-2007. free. 2019-09-01. 2023-08-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828202758/https://hal.science/hal-00301676/file/nhess-7-41-2007.pdf. live.
  6. More hurricanes to hit western Europe due to global warming . Haarsma . R J . Geophysical Research Letters . 2013-03-18 . 40 . 9 . 1783–1788 . 10.1002/grl.50360. 2013GeoRL..40.1783H . 9084384 . free .
  7. Web site: Europe expected to see a large increase in Hurricane Sandy-like hybrid storms . Jeff . Masters . 2013-04-08 . Weather Underground . 2020-09-03 . 2023-08-28 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230828202738/https://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/europe-expected-to-see-a-large-increase-in-hurricane-sandylike-hybrid.html . live .
  8. Wheeler. D.. García-Herrera. R.. Vaquero. J. M.. Chenoweth. M.. Mock. C. J.. Reconstructing The Trajectory of The August 1680 Hurricane From Contemporary Records. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 90. 7. 971–978. 10.1175/2009BAMS2649.1. 2009BAMS...90..971W. 2009. free.
  9. Liberato. Margarida L.R.. The 19 January 2013 windstorm over the north Atlantic: Large-scale dynamics and impacts on Iberia. Weather and Climate Extremes. 10.1016/j.wace.2014.06.002. 5-6. 16–28. 2014. 2014WCE.....5...16L . free.
  10. Domínguez-Castro. F.. Trigo. R. M.. Vaquero. J. M.. The first meteorological measurements in the Iberian Peninsula: evaluating the storm of November 1724. Climatic Change. 21 November 2012. 118. 2. 443–455. 10.1007/s10584-012-0628-9. 10.1007/s10584-012-0628-9. 56398071. free.
  11. J.Vaquero M.García-Herrera, R. . Wheeler, D. . Chenoweth, M. . Mock, C. J. . 2008-02-01. A Historical Analog of 2005 Hurricane Vince. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 89. 2. 191–201. 10.1175/BAMS-89-2-191. 2008BAMS...89..191V . free.
  12. Web site: National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration. Hurricane of August and September 1848. 2013-06-14. 2013-12-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20131205093533/http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/wea02473.htm. live.
  13. José Fernández Partagás. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003. Year 1883. 2013-06-14. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304063434/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1881-1883/1883.pdf. live.
  14. José Fernández Partagás. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003. Year 1884. 2013-06-14. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304093331/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1884-1886/1884.pdf. live.
  15. José Fernández Partagás. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003. Year 1887 a. 2013-06-14. 2012-09-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20120919120417/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1887/1887a.pdf. live.
  16. José Fernández Partagás. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003. Year 1887 b. 2013-06-14. 2021-10-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20211028210207/https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1887/1887b.pdf. live.
  17. José Fernández Partagás. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2003. Year 1906. 2013-06-14. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304204952/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/Landsea/Partagas/1905-1908/1906_2.pdf. live.
  18. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2008. 2013-06-12. Storm Three 1917 Metadata. 2008-03-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20080316222108/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_19151920_new.html#1917_3. live.
  19. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009. 2013-06-12. Storm Two 1922 Metadata. 2013-10-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20131029204907/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_mar09.html#1922_02. live.
  20. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2009. 2013-06-12. Storm One 1927 Metadata. 2011-06-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20110628232555/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_1926-30.html#1927_01. live.
  21. Mitchell. Charles L.. The Tropical Storm of August 30 – September 15, 1932. Monthly Weather Review. September 1932. 2013-06-12. 60. 9. 177–178. 10.1175/1520-0493(1932)60<177:TTSOAI>2.0.CO;2. 1932MWRv...60..177.. free. 2012-03-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20120302165636/http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/mwr/060/mwr-060-09-0177.pdf. live.
  22. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. 2013-06-12. Storm Four 1932 Metadata. 2014-01-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20140107020610/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_1932.html#1932_4. live.
  23. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. 2013-06-12. Storm Four 1932 Raw Data. .XLS. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002023/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/RawData/1932/193204.xls. live.
  24. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. 2013-06-19. Storm Nine 1944 Metadata. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191259/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_1944.html#1944_9. live.
  25. Web site: National Hurricane Center. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013. 2013-06-19. Storm Twelve 1944 Metadata. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304191259/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/metadata_1944.html#1944_12. live.
  26. Moore. Paul L.. The Hurricane Season of 1957. Monthly Weather Review. 1957-12-01. 85. 12. 401–408. 10.1175/1520-0493(1957)085<0401:THSO>2.0.CO;2. 2013-06-12. 1957MWRv...85..401M. 2016-12-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20161221121632/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/mwr_pdf/1957.pdf. live.
  27. News: World Briefs. 2013-06-12. The Owosso Argus-Press. 1957-09-25. Associated Press. London, United Kingdom. 21. 2022-06-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20220611064921/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=R581AAAAIBAJ&pg=3106%2C7291209&dq=carrie%20britain&hl=en. live.
  28. Hurricane Debbie — September 7–15, 1961 Preliminary Report. 1961. National Weather Bureau. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2013-01-01. 2013-11-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20131112034413/http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/hurricanes/Qc9452d393h81961.pdf. live.
  29. News: Irish Independent. September 18, 1961. Gale Killed Fifteen. 3.
  30. News: Irish Press. Man Hurt In Storm Dies. October 2, 1961. 7.
  31. News: Ferry Boat Captain Credits Luck. 1966-09-08. Associated Press. Edmonton Journal. 41. 2013-06-21. 2022-11-30. https://web.archive.org/web/20221130162937/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=UiJlAAAAIBAJ&pg=1166,1657589&hl=en. live.
  32. Rainfall Floods and Weather Patterns . Lars Andreas Roald . 2008 . . 31 and 34 . 2013-02-14 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20131005003953/http://www.nve.no/Global/Publikasjoner/Publikasjoner%202008/Oppdragsrapport%20A%202008/oppdragsrapportA14-08.pdf . 2013-10-05 .
  33. Arnold L. Sugg. March 1967. The Hurricane Season of 1966. National Hurricane Center. 2013-02-27. 137 and 138. 2013-02-17. https://web.archive.org/web/20130217210843/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1966.pdf. live.
  34. 248. Arnold L. Sugg. Joseph M. Pelissier. amp. Monthly Weather Review. April 1968. 96. 4. The Hurricane Season of 1967. 10.1175/1520-0493(1968)096<0242:THSO>2.0.CO;2. 2013-06-21. 1968MWRv...96..242S. 2007-06-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20070629113956/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/general/lib/lib1/nhclib/mwreviews/1967.pdf. live.
  35. Web site: Wreck Site. August 26, 2013. MV Fiete Schulze (+1967).
  36. Web site: John R. Hope. National Hurricane Center. 1973. 2013-06-21. Hurricane Fran (Bravo) Preliminary Report. 3. 2016-03-03. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224759/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/cdmp/dvd0179-jpg/1973/atlantic/bravo-fran/postevent/prelim.02.jpg. live.
  37. 1981-10-20. Hurricane Irene Preliminary Report. 2013-06-21. National Hurricane Center. GIF. 2012-10-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20121021042229/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1981-prelim/irene/prelim01.gif. live.
  38. Miles B. Lawrence . Hurricane Gloria Preliminary Report . 2 . National Hurricane Center . 1985-11-03 . GIF . 2013-08-11 . 2014-06-17 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140617154757/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1985-prelim/gloria/prelim02.gif . live .
  39. Web site: Irish Meteorological Service . 1986 . August 1986 Monthly Weather Bulletin . 2008-10-25 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110617050757/http://www.boards.ie/vbulletin/showthread.php?t=2054992531 . 2011-06-17 .
  40. Web site: Mary C. Bourke . 1990 . The effect of Hurricane Charley on the Cloghoge River, Ireland . Planetary Science Institute . 2008-10-26 . https://archive.today/20070222045510/http://www.psi.edu/staff/bourkeprojects/HurricaneCharley.htm . dead . 2007-02-22 .
  41. Web site: National Meteorology Library and Archive. Government of the United Kingdom. Charley comes to Wales: 25 August 1986. 1986.
  42. News: Staff Writer. 1986-08-26. Tail End of Hurricane Charley Kills At Least 11 in Britain and Ireland. Associated Press.
  43. Web site: Harold P. Gerrish. National Hurricane Center. 1987-10-16. 2011-06-12. Hurricane Arlene Preliminary Report: Page Two. 2016-03-03. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230649/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/storm_wallets/atlantic/atl1987-prelim/arlene/prelim02.gif. live.
  44. Web site: J.G. Pinto, M. Klawa, U. Ulbrich, R.Rudari and P. Speth. Centro di Ricerca Interuniversitario in Monitoraggio Ambientale. October 2001. 2013-06-12. Extreme Precipitation Events Over Northwest Italy. https://web.archive.org/web/20111005055448/http://www.meteo.uni-koeln.de/content/downloads/Pinto_et_al2001_Plinius.pdf. 2011-10-05. dead.
  45. News: Ian Murray. The Times. 1993-09-14. Nimrod rescues plane hit by lightning in mid-Atlantic.
  46. News: Barbara Mcmahon . David Taylor . amp . Evening Standard. 1. 1993-09-14. Mountain Rescue for Cadets as Storms Rage.
  47. Chris Thorncrof. Sarah C. Jones. April 2000. The Extratropical Transitions of Hurricanes Felix and Iris in 1995. Monthly Weather Review. 128. 4. 10.1175/1520-0493(2000)128<0947:TETOHF>2.0.CO;2. 1520-0493 . 2000MWRv..128..947T. 947–972. free.
  48. News: Chris Court . Andrew Woodcock . amp . Press Association. 1995-09-07. Hurricane Iris Blows Into Britain.
  49. Richard Pasch. 1997-02-21. Tropical Storm Josephine Preliminary Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-21. 2015-06-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20150629094247/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1996josephin.html. live.
  50. Miles B. Lawrence. 1996-11-18. Hurricane Lili Preliminary Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-17. 2015-06-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20150629094252/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1996lili.html. live.
  51. Richard Pasch. Hurricane Danielle Preliminary Report. 1999-01-19. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-17. 2010-09-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20100912180358/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1998danielle.html. live.
  52. News: Andy Gales. Hurricane is set to storm into Britain. The Evening Chronicle. Newcastle, United Kingdom. 1998-09-29. (accessed via Lexis Nexis on 2013-06-10)
  53. Richard J. Pasch. 1999-02-08. Hurricane Jeanne Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-17. 2010-10-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20101006021208/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/1998jeanne.html. live.
  54. News: Lynne Kelleher. Hurricane Mitch leaves 30,000 homes in dark out after night of chaos. The Mirror. London. 1998-11-10. 2013-06-10. 2014-01-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20140109161134/http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Hurricane%2BMitch%2Bleaves%2B30%2C000%2Bhomes%2Bin%2Bdark%2Bout%2Bafter%2Bnight%2Bof%2Bchaos%3B...-a060612825. live.
  55. Jack Beven. 2000-12-08. Hurricane Alberto Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-09. 2013-06-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20130602070345/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2000alberto.html. live.
  56. Richard J. Pasch . National Hurricane Center . Hurricane Isaac Tropical Cyclone Report . 2000-12-18 . 2013-06-09 . 2012-01-18 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120118003109/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2000isaac.html . live .
  57. Web site: Chuck Kruger. Surfbirds.com. Tail-end of Hurricane Sets A Record On Cape. 2000. 2011-05-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20090107104719/http://www.surfbirds.com/Features/bluewwarb.html. January 7, 2009.
  58. James Franklin. Daniel Brown. 2000-11-05. Tropical Storm Leslie Tropical Cyclone Report (Subtropical Depression One). National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-09. 2010-12-03. https://web.archive.org/web/20101203041825/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2000leslie.html. live.
  59. News: Brett Israel. Article: How Often Does Britain Get Hit by Hurricanes?. LiveScience.com. 2013-06-09. 2011-09-12. 2021-05-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20210512152215/https://www.livescience.com/16016-hurricane-katia-hits-britain.html. live.
  60. Web site: Kevin Boyle. Gary Padgett. 2002. October 2002 Worldwide Tropical Summary. 2013-06-09. Australian Severe Weather. 2011-06-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20110605235509/http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2003/summ0209.htm. live.
  61. Web site: Gary Padgett. 2003. April 2003 Global Tropical Cyclone Summary. 2013-06-09. 2012-02-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20120207025455/http://www.australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2003/summ0304.htm. live.
  62. Web site: Kevin Boyle. Gary Padgett. 2003. Monthly Global Tropical Cyclone Summary September 2003. 2013-06-11. 2013-10-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192947/http://australiasevereweather.com/cyclones/2004/summ0309.htm. live.
  63. United Kingdom Met Office. 2013-02-27. August 2004 Weather Summary. 2013-06-14. 2014-08-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20140815102430/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/summaries/2004/august. live.
  64. Jack Beven. 2004-12-17. Hurricane Karl Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-09. 2013-10-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20131002000414/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/2004karl.shtml. live.
  65. United Kingdom Met Office. 2013-02-27. October 2004 Weather Summary. 2013-06-14. 2015-10-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001174838/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/summaries/2004/october. live.
  66. Richard J. Pasch. Eric S. Blake. National Hurricane Center. Hurricane Maria Tropical Cyclone Report. 2006-02-08. 2013-06-14. PDF. 2015-10-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20151002011720/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL142005_Maria.pdf. live.
  67. A. Stohl. C. Forster. H. Sodemann. 2008. Remote sources of water vapor forming precipitation on the Norwegian west coast at 60ºN–a tale of hurricanes and an atmospheric river. Journal of Geophysical Research. 113. D5. n/a. 10.1029/2007jd009006. 2008JGRD..113.5102S. 2013-06-14. 2014-01-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20140109105409/http://zardoz.nilu.no/~andreas/publications/134.pdf. live.
  68. 2011-05-31. Climate Change and Territorial Effects on Regions and Local Economies. Ove Langeland. Per Medby. Bjørg Langset. European Observation Network. 2013-06-14. https://web.archive.org/web/20140109111053/http://www.espon.eu/export/sites/default/Documents/Projects/AppliedResearch/CLIMATE/ESPON_Climate_Final_Report_Annex5_Bergen_Case_Study.pdf. 2014-01-09. dead.
  69. News: Agence France-Presse. 2005-09-14. Weakened Hurricane Maria Leaves One Dead In Norway. Terra Daily. 2013-06-14. 2013-02-03. https://archive.today/20130203145901/http://www.terradaily.com/news/hurricane-05zzv.html. live.
  70. Web site: Norske ekstremvær får navn. Norwegian Meteorological Institute. 9 January 2014. no. 9 January 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140109110916/http://www.met.no/?module=Articles;action=Article.publicShow;ID=246. live.
  71. James L. Franklin. Hurricane Vince Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2006-02-22. 2013-06-10. PDF. 2015-10-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20151002011818/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL242005_Vince.pdf. live.
  72. News: Diario Córdoba. 2005-10-13. 2013-06-10. Problemas en varias carreteras de la provincia. es. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20080916100506/http://www.diariocordoba.com/noticias/noticia.asp?pkid=210378. 2008-09-16.
  73. Lixion Avila. Daniel Brown. 2006-08-11. Tropical Storm Alberto Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-14. PDF. 2015-10-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001174344/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL012006_Alberto.pdf. live.
  74. United Kingdom Met Office. 2013-02-27. June 2006 Weather Summary. 2013-06-14. 2014-08-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20140815052935/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/summaries/2006/june. live.
  75. Eric Blake. 2006-11-14. Hurricane Gordon Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2011-05-03. PDF. 2015-10-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20151002000755/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL082006_Gordon.pdf. live.
  76. Web site: Las Consecuencias de Gordon en Espana . . 2011-05-09 . Government of Spain . es . unfit . https://web.archive.org/web/20061004090210/http://www.inm.es/web/izq/noticias/meteonoti/pdf/nota_gordon20060922.pdf . October 4, 2006 .
  77. News: Lewis Smith. Paul Simons. amp. 2006-09-22. Gordon keeps the forecasters guessing. The Sunday Times. 2011-05-10. 2020-09-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20200910131225/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/. live.
  78. Daniel P. Brown . 2006-11-15 . [{{NHC TCR url|id=AL082006_Helene}} Hurricane Helene Tropical Cyclone Report]. National Hurricane Center . 2013-06-14 . PDF.
  79. Richard J. Pasch. 2009-02-04. 2013-06-10. Tropical Storm Laura Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. PDF. 2015-10-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20151002011328/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL122008_Laura.pdf. live.
  80. News: Tropical storm brings floods. 2008-10-04. The Westmorland Gazette. 2013-06-11. 2016-03-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20160306165929/http://www.thewestmorlandgazette.co.uk/news/3728628.Tropical_storm_brings_floods/. live.
  81. News: Laura Harding. The Independent. 2009-08-27. 2013-06-10. More rain expected in parts of UK. 2012-11-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20121104160052/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/more-rain-expected-in-parts-of-uk-1777882.html. live.
  82. Robbie Berg. National Hurricane Center. 2009-11-28. 2013-06-10. Tropical Storm Grace Tropical Cyclone Report. PDF. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304124800/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL092009_Grace.pdf. live.
  83. United Kingdom Met Office. 2013-02-27. October 2009 Weather Summary. 2013-06-14. 2023-08-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828203345/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/summaries/index. live.
  84. Stacy Stewart. 2012-01-16. Hurricane Katia Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-10. PDF. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304103309/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL122011_Katia.pdf. live.
  85. Post-tropical storm Katia – September 2011. United Kingdom Met Office. 2011-11-15. 2013-06-10. 2018-11-06. https://web.archive.org/web/20181106171159/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/about-us/who/how/case-studies/post-tropical-storm-katia. live.
  86. News: 2011-10-06. Snow and high winds forecast as hurricane and Arctic air combine to blast Scotland. The Daily Record. 2013-06-10. 2013-05-29. https://web.archive.org/web/20130529193923/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/snow-and-high-winds-forecast-as-hurricane-1083609. live.
  87. Web site: Fred Campagna. Right Weather. Remnants of Leslie follow freak snow storm in Iceland. 2012-09-12. 2013-06-11. 2016-03-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001622/http://rightweather.com/2012/09/remnants-of-leslie-follow-freak-snow-storm-in-iceland/. live.
  88. News: 2012-09-11. 2013-06-14. Worked to become 3 am. Mbl.is. 2023-08-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828203303/https://www-mbl-is.translate.goog/frettir/innlent/2012/09/11/unnu_til_ad_verda_3_i_nott/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en. live.
  89. Hurricane Nadine Tropical Cyclone Report. Daniel P. Brown. 2013-01-08. National Hurricane Center. 2013-06-11. PDF. 2014-01-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20140104212526/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL142012_Nadine.pdf. live.
  90. News: BBC. 2012-10-05. Tropical Storm Nadine finally breaks up. 2013-06-11. 2013-09-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20130925202617/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/19852695. live.
  91. United Kingdom Met Office. 2013-02-27. October 2012 Weather Summary. 2013-06-14. 2013-09-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20130921054147/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/summaries/2012/october. live.
  92. Lixion Avila. 2013-01-14. 2013-06-10. National Hurricane Center. Hurricane Rafael Tropical Cyclone Report. PDF. 2013-12-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20131215195843/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL172012_Rafael.pdf. live.
  93. Web site: European Severe Storms Laboratory. 2013. 2013-06-22. European Severe Weather Database. 2012-06-23. https://web.archive.org/web/20120623015709/http://essl.org/cgi-bin/eswd/eswd.cgi. live.
  94. News: UK weather still affected by ex-hurricane Bertha. 11 August 2014. BBC News. 11 August 2014. 11 August 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140811064840/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-28736323. live.
  95. News: Coup de vent en Manche.. 11 August 2014. Météo-France/CMS. 10 August 2014. 12 August 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140812210238/http://www.meteo-spatiale.fr/src/images_evenementielles-image-40169018.php. live.
  96. News: Impacts of ex-hurricane Bertha. 26 August 2014. Met Office. 12 August 2014. 20 August 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140820212409/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/news/releases/archive/2014/bertha-impacts. live.
  97. News: Iceland in the eye of the storm (Translated from Icelandic). Visir. 2015-08-30. 2014-10-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20141004221655/http://www.visir.is/island-i-auga-stormsins/article/2014140909969. live.
  98. Web site: BBC editorial staff. Hurricane Gonzalo: Woman hit by tree in London dies. October 21, 2014. The British Broadcasting Corporation. October 21, 2014. August 28, 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828203247/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-29700594. live.
  99. Web site: Hurricane Gonzalo live: two dead as winds batter Britain. https://web.archive.org/web/20141021163556/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/topics/weather/11176145/Hurricane-Gonzalo-live-updates-as-strong-winds-batter-Britain.html. dead. 21 October 2014. 21 October 2014. Telegraph.co.uk. 21 October 2014.
  100. Web site: Wetter-News für Deutschland, Europa und weltweit – Wetter24.de. Wetter24.de. 16 October 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20141024111634/http://www.wetter24.de/wetter-news/news/ch/9ad10aaca6bc89a9126a522458677a43/article/ex_gonzalo_erste_sturm_nachlese.html. 24 October 2014. dead.
  101. http://www.weather.com/safety/floods/greece-flooding-latest-news-20141024 Greece Flooding, Caused By Slow-Moving Remnants of Hurricane Gonzalo, Covers Athens Streets
  102. Web site: A mini heatwave is on its way to the UK. Independent.co.uk. 26 June 2015. 16 October 2018. 5 August 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150805180729/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/uk-weather-mini-heatwave-bringing-temperatures-up-to-35c-for-wimbledon-10348080.html. live.
  103. Web site: TD 9 Forms in Central Atlantic. 9 December 2023.
  104. Web site: More severe weather forecast for southern and eastern Europe but calmer conditions here in the UK. 11 October 2015. 16 October 2018. 28 August 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204309/https://www.itv.com/news/2015-10-11/more-severe-weather-forecast-for-southern-and-eastern-europe-but-calmer-conditions-here-in-the-uk. live.
  105. Birth of the Biscane. Michael. Maier‐Gerber. Florian. Pantillon. Enrico Di. Muzio. Michael. Riemer. Andreas H.. Fink. Peter. Knippertz. 1 August 2017. Weather. 72. 8. 236–241. 10.1002/wea.2995. 2017Wthr...72..236M. free.
  106. News: Three killed as storm sweeps into Ireland. BBC News. 17 October 2017. 16 October 2018. 28 August 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204406/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-41627442. live.
  107. News: Clear-up after Ophelia wind damage. BBC News. 17 October 2017. 16 October 2018. 28 August 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204306/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-41648732. live.
  108. Web site: Rina to bring rain and wind to Ireland and UK into early Saturday. 9 December 2023.
  109. Web site: Tropical storm Ernesto looks set to reach Ireland on Saturday night. Newsweek. 18 August 2018. 16 October 2018. 28 August 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204313/https://www.newsweek.com/ernesto-storm-ireland-map-where-1079043. live.
  110. Web site: Laud . Georgina . Storm Ernesto path update: Where is Storm Ernesto now? When will it hit UK? . Express.co.uk . 2 October 2018 . 17 August 2018 . According to the NHC: "Ernesto is moving quickly toward the northeast near 25 mph (41 km/h), and an even faster motion toward the northeast or east-northeast is expected during the next day or two." . 28 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204311/https://www.express.co.uk/news/weather/1004719/storm-ernesto-path-update-where-is-ernesto-now-uk-weather-tracking-met-office . live .
  111. Web site: Godlewski . Nina . Tropical storm Ernesto looks set to reach Ireland on Saturday night . Newsweek . 2 October 2018 . 18 August 2018 . But the storm was still set to bring heavy rains and some wind gusts to the islands off the coast of Ireland and the country itself by Saturday night and continuing into Sunday. Heavy rain was expected in some areas and was expected to lighten through the day Sunday to a drizzle, according to the Met Service. The storm could even bring rain to Scotland, Northern Ireland and other parts of the United Kingdom after passing over Ireland. . 28 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204313/https://www.newsweek.com/ernesto-storm-ireland-map-where-1079043 . live .
  112. Web site: Godlewski . Nina . Tropical storm Ernesto looks set to reach Ireland on Saturday night . Newsweek . 2 October 2018 . 18 August 2018 . About an inch of rain was expected to fall in most places as the storm traveled across the U.K. though some areas could see higher rainfall totals, AccuWeather reported. Areas where more rain falls could potentially cause flash flooding. . 28 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204313/https://www.newsweek.com/ernesto-storm-ireland-map-where-1079043 . live .
  113. Web site: Godlewski . Nina . Tropical storm Ernesto looks set to reach Ireland on Saturday night . Newsweek . 2 October 2018 . 18 August 2018 . The strongest gusts of winds were expected to be between 30 and 40 mph . 28 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204313/https://www.newsweek.com/ernesto-storm-ireland-map-where-1079043 . live .
  114. Web site: Storm Ernesto on course for the UK and Ireland this weekend . Sky News . 2 October 2018 . Western Ireland will also see "thicker cloud, stronger winds and persistent rain", according to Sky News weather presenter Jo Edwards. . 19 October 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181019235533/https://news.sky.com/story/storm-ernesto-on-course-for-the-uk-and-ireland-this-weekend-11475035 . live .
  115. Web site: Storm Ernesto on course for the UK and Ireland this weekend . Sky News . 2 October 2018 . Ernesto will leave behind a legacy of overcast and muggy conditions when it eventually clears into the North Sea late on Sunday. . 19 October 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181019235533/https://news.sky.com/story/storm-ernesto-on-course-for-the-uk-and-ireland-this-weekend-11475035 . live .
  116. Avila . Lixion . Post-Tropical Cyclone Leslie Tropical Cyclone Update . National Hurricane Center . National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . 13 October 2018 . 14 October 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181014010118/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2018/al13/al132018.update.10131732.shtml . live .
  117. News: A tempestade Leslie entrou pela Figueira da Foz e fustigou o Centro. pt. October 14, 2018. October 14, 2018. Diário de Notícias. October 14, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181014034911/https://www.dn.pt/pais/interior/a-tempestade-leslie-entrou-pela-figueira-da-foz-e-fustigou-o-litoral-centro-9997275.html. live.
  118. News: UK weather forecast: Storm Sebastian strikes with heavy rain and high winds as Met Office issues yellow warnings . INews UK . November 27, 2019.
  119. Subtropical Storm Alpha Tropical Cyclone Report. Daniel P. Brown. January 28, 2021. National Hurricane Center. Miami, Florida. 3. July 1, 2021. June 24, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210624190954/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL242020_Alpha.pdf. live.
  120. Web site: Hurricane Zeta path: How UK weather will be affected by US tropical storm – and latest Met Office forecast . 29 October 2020 . 15 November 2020 . 28 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230828204833/https://inews.co.uk/news/uk/hurricane-zeta-path-uk-weather-forecast-tracker-us-tropical-storm-met-office-warnings-741851 . live .
  121. Web site: Tropical Storm THETA . 2020-11-15 . 2020-11-15 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201115120531/https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2020/al30/al302020.discus.021.shtml . live .
  122. http://www.met.fu-berlin.de/de/wetter/maps/Analyse_20211008.gif Map
  123. http://www.met.fu-berlin.de/de/wetter/maps/Analyse_20211009.gif Map
  124. Web site: 2022-06-12 . Single Location Forecast - 7 Day . 2022-06-12 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220612015125/https://www.orkneyharbours.com/documents/forecast?nc=1636000681 . 2022-06-12 .