Trapezoidal rule explained

In calculus, the trapezoidal rule (also known as the trapezoid rule or trapezium rule) is a technique for numerical integration, i.e., approximating the definite integral:$$\backslash int\_a^b\; f(x)\; \backslash ,\; dx.$$

The trapezoidal rule works by approximating the region under the graph of the function

f(x) as a trapezoid and calculating its area. It follows that$$\backslash int\_^\; f(x)\; \backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash approx\; (b-a)\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash tfrac(f(a)+f(b)).$$

The trapezoidal rule may be viewed as the result obtained by averaging the left and right Riemann sums, and is sometimes defined this way. The integral can be even better approximated by partitioning the integration interval, applying the trapezoidal rule to each subinterval, and summing the results. In practice, this "chained" (or "composite") trapezoidal rule is usually what is meant by "integrating with the trapezoidal rule". Let

\{x _{k\}} be a partition of [a,b] such that a = x _{0} < x _{1} < … < x _{N-1} < x _{N} = b and \Delta x _{k} be the length of the k -th subinterval (that is, \Delta x _{k} = x _{k} - x _{k-1} ), then $$\backslash int\_a^b\; f(x)\; \backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash approx\; \backslash sum\_^N\; \backslash frac\; \backslash Delta\; x\_k.$$When the partition has a regular spacing, as is often the case, that is, when all the \Delta x _{k} have the same value \Delta x, the formula can be simplified for calculation efficiency by factoring \Delta x out:.$$\backslash int\_a^b\; f(x)\; \backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash approx\; \backslash frac\; \backslash left(f(x\_0)\; +\; 2f(x\_1)\; +\; 2f(x\_2)\; +\; 2f(x\_3)\; +\; 2f(x\_4)\; +\; \backslash cdots\; +\; 2f(x\_)\; +\; f(x\_N)\backslash right).$$

The approximation becomes more accurate as the resolution of the partition increases (that is, for larger

N , all \Delta x _{k} decrease).

As discussed below, it is also possible to place error bounds on the accuracy of the value of a definite integral estimated using a trapezoidal rule.

History

A 2016 Science paper reports that the trapezoid rule was in use in Babylon before 50 BCE for integrating the velocity of Jupiter along the ecliptic.^[1]

Numerical implementation

Non-uniform grid

When the grid spacing is non-uniform, one can use the formula$$\backslash int\_^\; f(x)\backslash ,\; dx\; \backslash approx\; \backslash sum\_^N\; \backslash frac\; \backslash Delta\; x\_k,$$wherein

\Delta x _{k} = x _{k} - x _{k-1} .

Uniform grid

For a domain discretized into

N equally spaced panels, considerable simplification may occur. Let$$\backslash Delta\; x\_k\; =\; \backslash Delta\; x\; =\; \backslash frac$$the approximation to the integral becomes

Error analysis

The error of the composite trapezoidal rule is the difference between the value of the integral and the numerical result:$$\backslash text\; =\; \backslash int\_a^b\; f(x)\backslash ,dx\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash left[\{f(a)\; +\; f(b)\; \backslash over\; 2\}\; +\; \backslash sum\_\{k=1\}^\{N-1\}\; f\; \backslash left(a+k\; \backslash frac\{b-a\}\{N\}\; \backslash right)\; \backslash right]$$

There exists a number ξ between a and b, such that$$\backslash text\; =\; -\backslash frac\; f$$(\xi)

It follows that if the integrand is concave up (and thus has a positive second derivative), then the error is negative and the trapezoidal rule overestimates the true value. This can also be seen from the geometric picture: the trapezoids include all of the area under the curve and extend over it. Similarly, a concave-down function yields an underestimate because area is unaccounted for under the curve, but none is counted above. If the interval of the integral being approximated includes an inflection point, the sign of the error is harder to identify.

An asymptotic error estimate for N → ∞ is given by$$\backslash text\; =\; -\backslash frac\; \backslash big[f\text{'}(b)-f\text{'}(a)\; \backslash big]\; +\; O(N^).$$Further terms in this error estimate are given by the Euler–Maclaurin summation formula.

Several techniques can be used to analyze the error, including:

1. Fourier series
2. Residue calculus
3. Euler–Maclaurin summation formula
4. Polynomial interpolation

It is argued that the speed of convergence of the trapezoidal rule reflects and can be used as a definition of classes of smoothness of the functions.

Proof

First suppose that

h = (b - a)/(N) and a _{k=a+(k-1)h} . Let $$g\_k(t)\; =\; \backslash frac\; t[f(a\_k)+f(a\_k+t)]\; -\; \backslash int\_^\; f(x)\; \backslash ,\; dx$$ be the function such that |g _{k(h)|} is the error of the trapezoidal rule on one of the intervals, [a _{k,} a _{k+h]} . Then$$=[f(a\_k)+f(a\_k+t)]+t\backslash cdot\; f\text{'}(a\_k+t)-f(a\_k+t),$$and$$=t\backslash cdot\; f$$(a_k+t).

Now suppose that

\left| f''(x) \right| \leq \left| f''(\xi) \right|, which holds if f is sufficiently smooth. It then follows that$$\backslash left|\; f$$(a_k+t) \right| \leq f(\xi)which is equivalent to- f''(\xi) \leq f''(a _{k+t)} \leq f''(\xi) , or - (f''(\xi)t)/(2) \leq g _{k''(t)} \leq (f''(\xi)t)/(2) .

Since

g _{k'(0)=0} and g _{k(0)=0} ,$$\backslash int\_0^t\; g\_k$$(x) dx = g_k'(t) and $$\backslash int\_0^t\; g\_k\text{'}(x)\; dx\; =\; g\_k(t).$$

Using these results, we find$$-\backslash frac\; \backslash leq\; g\_k\text{'}(t)\; \backslash leq\; \backslash frac$$and$$-\backslash frac\; \backslash leq\; g\_k(t)\; \backslash leq\; \backslash frac$$

Letting

t = h we find$$-\backslash frac\; \backslash leq\; g\_k(h)\; \backslash leq\; \backslash frac.$$

Summing all of the local error terms we find$$\backslash sum\_^\; g\_k(h)\; =\; \backslash frac\; \backslash left[\{f(a)\; +\; f(b)\; \backslash over\; 2\}\; +\; \backslash sum\_\{k=1\}^\{N-1\}\; f\; \backslash left(a+k\; \backslash frac\{b-a\}\{N\}\; \backslash right)\; \backslash right]\; -\; \backslash int\_a^b\; f(x)dx.$$

But we also have$$-\; \backslash sum\_^N\; \backslash frac\; \backslash leq\; \backslash sum\_^N\; g\_k(h)\; \backslash leq\; \backslash sum\_^N\; \backslash frac$$and$$\backslash sum\_^N\; \backslash frac=\backslash frac,$$

so that

$$-\backslash frac\; \backslash leq\; \backslash frac\; \backslash left[\{f(a)\; +\; f(b)\; \backslash over\; 2\}\; +\; \backslash sum\_\{k=1\}^\{N-1\}\; f\; \backslash left(a+k\; \backslash frac\{b-a\}\{N\}\; \backslash right)\; \backslash right]-\backslash int\_a^bf(x)dx\; \backslash leq\; \backslash frac.$$

Therefore the total error is bounded by

$$\backslash text\; =\; \backslash int\_a^b\; f(x)\backslash ,dx\; -\; \backslash frac\; \backslash left[\{f(a)\; +\; f(b)\; \backslash over\; 2\}\; +\; \backslash sum\_\{k=1\}^\{N-1\}\; f\; \backslash left(a+k\; \backslash frac\{b-a\}\{N\}\; \backslash right)\; \backslash right]\; =\; \backslash frac=\backslash frac.$$

Periodic and peak functions

The trapezoidal rule converges rapidly for periodic functions. This is an easy consequence of the Euler-Maclaurin summation formula, which says thatif

f is p times continuously differentiable with period T $$\backslash sum\_^\; f(kh)h\; =\; \backslash int\_0^T\; f(x)\backslash ,dx\; +\; \backslash sum\_^\; \backslash frac\; (f^(T)\; -\; f^(0))\; -\; (-1)^p\; h^p\; \backslash int\_0^T\backslash tilde\_(x/T)f^(x)\; \backslash ,\; dx$$where h: = T/N and \tilde{B} _{p} is the periodic extension of the p th Bernoulli polynomial.^[2] Due to the periodicity, the derivatives at the endpoint cancel and we see that the error is O(h ^{p)} .

A similar effect is available for peak-like functions, such as Gaussian, Exponentially modified Gaussian and other functions with derivatives at integration limits that can be neglected.^[3] The evaluation of the full integral of a Gaussian function by trapezoidal rule with 1% accuracy can be made using just 4 points.^[4] Simpson's rule requires 1.8 times more points to achieve the same accuracy.

Although some effort has been made to extend the Euler-Maclaurin summation formula to higher dimensions,^[5] the most straightforward proof of the rapid convergence of the trapezoidal rule in higher dimensions is to reduce the problem to that of convergence of Fourier series. This line of reasoning shows that if

f is periodic on a n -dimensional space with p continuous derivatives, the speed of convergence is O(h ^{p/d} ) . For very large dimension, the shows that Monte-Carlo integration is most likely a better choice, but for 2 and 3 dimensions, equispaced sampling is efficient. This is exploited in computational solid state physics where equispaced sampling over primitive cells in the reciprocal lattice is known as Monkhorst-Pack integration.^[6]

"Rough" functions

For functions that are not in C², the error bound given above is not applicable. Still, error bounds for such rough functions can be derived, which typically show a slower convergence with the number of function evaluations

N than the O(N ^{-2} ) behaviour given above. Interestingly, in this case the trapezoidal rule often has sharper bounds than Simpson's rule for the same number of function evaluations.

Applicability and alternatives

The trapezoidal rule is one of a family of formulas for numerical integration called Newton–Cotes formulas, of which the midpoint rule is similar to the trapezoid rule. Simpson's rule is another member of the same family, and in general has faster convergence than the trapezoidal rule for functions which are twice continuously differentiable, though not in all specific cases. However, for various classes of rougher functions (ones with weaker smoothness conditions), the trapezoidal rule has faster convergence in general than Simpson's rule.

Moreover, the trapezoidal rule tends to become extremely accurate when periodic functions are integrated over their periods, which can be analyzed in various ways. A similar effect is available for peak functions.

For non-periodic functions, however, methods with unequally spaced points such as Gaussian quadrature and Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature are generally far more accurate; Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature can be viewed as a change of variables to express arbitrary integrals in terms of periodic integrals, at which point the trapezoidal rule can be applied accurately.

Example

The following integral is given: $$\backslash int\_^$$ Solution

See also

• Gaussian quadrature
• Newton–Cotes formulas
• Rectangle method
• Romberg's method
• Simpson's rule

Notes

1. Ossendrijver . Mathieu . Jan 29, 2016 . Ancient Babylonian astronomers calculated Jupiter's position from the area under a time-velocity graph . Science . 10.1126/science.aad8085 . 26823423 . 351 . 6272 . 482–484 . 206644971 .
2. Book: Kress, Rainer. Numerical Analysis, volume 181 of Graduate Texts in Mathematics. 1998 . Springer-Verlag.
3. Goodwin. E. T. . 1949 . The evaluation of integrals of the form . Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society . en . 45 . 2 . 241–245 . 10.1017/S0305004100024786 . 1469-8064.
4. Kalambet. Yuri . Kozmin. Yuri . Samokhin. Andrey . 2018 . Comparison of integration rules in the case of very narrow chromatographic peaks . Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems. 179 . 22–30 . 10.1016/j.chemolab.2018.06.001. 0169-7439.
5. Web site: Euler-Maclaurin Summation Formula for Multiple Sums. math.stackexchange.com .
6. Web site: Numerical Integration over Brillouin Zones. Nick. Thompson . bandgap.io . 19 December 2017 .

External links

• Trapezium formula. I.P. Mysovskikh, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, ed. M. Hazewinkel
• Notes on the convergence of trapezoidal-rule quadrature
• An implementation of trapezoidal quadrature provided by Boost.Math