A distinctive type of Ottoman tower houses (Albanian: kullë; Bulgarian: кули, ; Serbian: кула, Romanian; Moldavian; Moldovan: [[culă]], all meaning "tower", from Arabic (“fort, fortress”) via Persian,[1] meaning "mountain" or "top", and Turkish) developed and were built in the Balkans,[2] including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Macedonia and Serbia, as well as in Oltenia, in Romania, after the Ottoman conquest in the Middle Ages by both Christian and Muslim communities.
The practice began during the decline of Ottoman power in the 17th century[3] and flourished until the early 20th century. The tower houses were typically made out of stone, rose three or four storeys, and were square or rectangular in shape.[3] They served both military (defence, watchtower) and civilian (residential) purposes in order to protect the extended family.[2]
Types of tower houses in Albanian architecture existed before the Ottoman invasion of the Balkans, especially in Gjirokastër. Albanian kullë are predominantly found in the north of the country, with notable instances in the south being Berat, Gjirokastër,[4] Himara, and Këlcyrë.[5] Kullas are heavily fortified buildings with small windows and shooting holes, because their main purpose was to offer security in a fighting situation. The first kullas that were built are from the 17th century, a time when there was continuous fighting in the Dukagjini region, although most of the ones that still remain are from the 18th or 19th century. They are almost always built within a complex of buildings with various functions, but kullas in towns exist mostly as standalone structures. They are also positioned within the complex of buildings that they exist in a way that makes it possible for the inhabitants to survey the surrounding area. Kullas in towns are usually built as standalone structures, while in villages they are more commonly found as a part of a larger ensemble of kullas and stone houses, usually grouped based on the family clan they belonged to.
Certain kullë were used as places of isolation and safe havens, or "locked towers" (Albanian: kulla ngujimi), intended for the use of persons targeted by blood feuds (gjakmarrja). An example can be found in Theth, northern Albania.[6]
There are also instances of fortified tower houses in Gjirokastër built in the 13th century, pre-dating Ottoman conquest.[7]
Towers and odžaks are usually built next to each other as fortification and residential buildings. Although easily confused they differ in material and purpose. However, sometime one building can be both at once. There used to be over three hundred such facilities in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and today there are over forty villages and hamlets named Kula and twelve Kulina, thirty-one settlements are called Odžak, four Odžaci and one Odžačina. A number of these towers and odžaks have been declared a national monument of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[8]
Local feudal lords of the Ottoman era built these stone multi-storey towers on their estates with a defensive and housing purpose. The city fortification and housing architecture often served as a model, with loopholes adopted from the city ramparts, and sanitary and other elements from the town houses were included. The tower is multi-story building with the base usually a square between 6 and 10 meters, less often a rectangle, and the height is between 11 and 20, and in some cases up to 25 meters. They were built from limestone, covered with a tented roof made of wood shingle or limestone slabs. The walls near the ground floor are always slightly thicker than the walls on the upper floors, varying between 100 and 152 cm. Odžaks were built next to the towers as regular one or two-story residential buildings with a rectangular base. They were built of stone, adobe and wood. There is always a spacious courtyard surrounded by a wall with the arched gate, protecting courtyard, towers and odžaks. There are also other buildings in the yard, including water well or water well pump. A particular type of tower is the captain's tower. They were built in the same way as those of landlords, but below these towers there were often dungeons.
Examples of fortified residential towers in Bulgarian lands include the 16th-century Tower of the Meshchii (converted into a clock tower in the 19th century) and the 17th-century Kurtpashov Tower in Vratsa in Bulgaria's northwest.[9] [10] The Pirgova (Pirkova) Tower, similar in purpose but different in design, was built in the southwestern town of Kyustendil in the 14th or 15th century.[11]
The tower in Teshovo in south Pirin, noted for its relatively sophisticated water conduit and sewage system, is also thought to date to the early Ottoman rule of Bulgaria and may well have been the residence of a local bey.[12] [13]
Hrelyo's Tower, built in 1334–5 by prōtosebastos Hrelja in the courtyard of the Rila Monastery, is a pre-Ottoman example of an autonomous tower that served residential as well as defensive purposes. Besides featuring habitable floors, the 75feet Hrelyo's Tower also includes an Orthodox chapel on its top floor.[14]
The tradition of tower houses in Greek architecture existed since Byzantine and Frankish times.[15]
Although the Ottoman-period architecture has almost completely disappeared from Greek urban centres, there are scattered examples of tower houses built in Ottoman Greece and during the chifliks.[16]
Alongside the fortified houses of Mani (called xemonia), there are also residential towers (koule) of Ottoman origin.
Greek architects have claimed that the Albanian tower houses developed under Greek influence.[17]
In Kosovo the traditional two- or three-storey kullas were built mainly between the 18th century and the early part of the 20th century.[18] They are constructed entirely of locally excavated stone, though some incorporate decorative wooden elements in the upper floors. Historically the kullas have been inhabited solely by men, with women and children housed in a connected annexe. The exterior walls are a meter thick at ground level but become thinner towards the roof. The small openings that play the role of windows are called frëngji,[19] and their tiny size is due to the kulla's historical use as a fortification and as a means of protection against attacks.[19]
Aspects of kulla life are strongly influenced by Muslim culture, especially the segregation between men and women in social spaces and entrances.[20] The kullas' characteristic double sets of entrances and staircases (main and side) reflect this division, since only the side entrance and staircase lead to the private family quarters. Kullas are also well-suited to the Kosovan climate as their construction allows them to remain cool in the summer and warm during winter.[20]
Examples include Jashar Pasha's Tower, Haxhi Zeka's Tower, Xhafer Syla's Tower, Mazrekaj Tower, Janjevo Tower, Tomić's Tower, and Osdautaj's Tower.
Nenadović's Tower (Serbian: Кула Ненадовића) was built by Jakov Nenadović in springtime 1813 in Valjevo, Šumadija.[21] Initially it was used by rebels during the First Serbian Uprising of the Serbian Revolution for military purposes. Ottomans later used it as prison.[22]
Examples include the Ganić tower house in Rožaje.