Polybrominated diphenyl ethers explained

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers or PBDEs, are a class of organobromine compounds that are used as flame retardants. Like other brominated flame retardants, PBDEs have been used in a wide array of products, including building materials, electronics, furnishings, motor vehicles, airplanes, plastics, polyurethane foams,[1] and textiles. They are structurally akin to polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other polyhalogenated compounds, consisting of two halogenated aromatic rings. PBDEs are classified according to the average number of bromine atoms in the molecule. The life-saving benefits of fire retardants led to their popularization. Standards for mass transit vehicles continues to increase as of 2021.

Because of their toxicity and persistence, all commercially relevant PBDEs have been marked for elimination under the Stockholm Convention, a treaty to control and phase out major persistent organic pollutants (POPs).[2] [3]

Classes of PBDEs

The family of PBDEs consists of 209 possible substances, which are called congeners (PBDE = C12H(10−x)BrxO (x = 1, 2, ..., 10 = m + n)). The number of isomers for mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, hexa-, hepta-, octa-, nona-, and decabromodiphenyl ethers are 3, 12, 24, 42, 46, 42, 24, 12, 3 and 1, respectively.[4]

Lower-brominated PBDEs with 1–4 bromine atoms per molecule are regarded as more dangerous because they more efficiently bioaccumulate. They have been known to affect thyroid hormone levels, and studies have linked them to reproductive and neurological risks at certain concentrations or higher.[5] Higher-brominated PBDEs are less acutely dangerous but biotically and photochemically debrominate to lower-brominated congeners.[6]

numberformulanameCAS NumberInChIKey
PBDE-12-bromodiphenyl ether36563-47-0RRWFUWRLNIZICP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-23-bromodiphenyl ether6876-00-2AHDAKFFMKLQPTD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-34-bromodiphenyl ether101-55-3JDUYPUMQALQRCN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-42,2'-dibromodiphenyl ether51452-87-0JMSKYMHFNWGUJG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-52,3-dibromodiphenyl ether446254-14-4JTYRXXKXOULVAP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-62,3'-dibromodiphenyl ether147217-72-9GODQTPRKFHOLPH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-72,4-dibromodiphenyl ether171977-44-9JMCIHKKTRDLVCO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-82,4'-dibromodiphenyl ether147217-71-8RJQLQJZMLISKRJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-92,5-dibromodiphenyl ether337513-66-3URDWJMUOJJSXAE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-102,6-dibromodiphenyl ether51930-04-2MUVDKHMQIZJFTC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-113,3'-dibromodiphenyl ether6903-63-5ALSVFJIXSNRBLE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-123,4-dibromodiphenyl ether189084-59-1SUUJFDKVPDCZQZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-133,4'-dibromodiphenyl ether83694-71-7BGPOVBPKODCMMN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-143,5-dibromodiphenyl ether46438-88-4FOXBZJLXVUHYQZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-154,4'-dibromodiphenyl ether2050-47-7YAWIAFUBXXPJMQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-162,2',3-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-74-1VRNGWCVCSHJUEJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-172,2',4-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-75-2VYBFILXLBMWOLI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-182,2',5-tribromodiphenyl ether407606-55-7FAZLXBWRNJAGSV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-192,2',6-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-73-0YDFQHBRKURQGAH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-202,3,3'-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-76-3RQJUBSPXDSGLRB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-212,3,4-tribromodiphenyl ether337513-67-4RXWRVYYPLRPDOS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-222,3,4'-tribromodiphenyl ether446254-15-5WZHNIFQVNBINLF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-232,3,5-tribromodiphenyl ether446254-16-6XQHLKDAUZRXBGC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-242,3,6-tribromodiphenyl ether218304-36-0GFLRHBRMAZDOIG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-252,3',4-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-77-4AURKEOPYVUYTLO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-262,3',5-tribromodiphenyl ether337513-75-4VUOBKVBAFJQQDB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-272,3',6-tribromodiphenyl ether337513-53-8JUPZALSVNWJHII-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-282,4,4'-tribromodiphenyl ether41318-75-6UPNBETHEXPIWQX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-292,4,5-tribromodiphenyl ether337513-56-1LTMKAFUXYKEDLR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-302,4,6-tribromodiphenyl ether155999-95-4TVZAPPGLBLTACB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-312,4',5-tribromodiphenyl ether65075-08-3PURZBWMLFRWRMG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-322,4',6-tribromodiphenyl ether189084-60-4TYDVYKIQSZGUMV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-332,3',4'-tribromodiphenyl ether49690-94-0BUQBQEYUVAKJQK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-342,3',5'-tribromodiphenyl ether446254-17-7XMNXHCHZIPYCNA-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-353,3',4-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-80-9CDVYKQPKJYPWRO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-363,3',5-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-79-6XUKPJLVONRTECE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-373,4,4'-tribromodiphenyl ether147217-81-0YALAYFVVZFORPV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-383,4,5-tribromodiphenyl ether337513-54-9DPGVQKLGQZZLMI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-393,4',5-tribromodiphenyl ether407606-57-9UFFNOPDHJNQYKD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-402,2',3,3'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether337513-77-6SXSUUFZWSVMTRL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-412,2',3,4-tetrabromodiphenyl ether337513-68-5UAEBSKBXZAIRMX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-422,2',3,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-18-8HQDQKPAHIDGGMH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-432,2',3,5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-19-9LKMQHSYDVDIECC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-442,2',3,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-20-2VBGBGTYMDIVKNK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-452,2',3,6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-21-3VTFWUBIOZQCMQS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-462,2',3,6'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-22-4GBUUKJRFSKCMTB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-472,2',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether5436-43-1XYBSIYMGXVUVGY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-482,2',4,5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether337513-55-0FJGDNHOVDFREMP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-492,2',4,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether243982-82-3QWVDUBDYUPHNHY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-502,2',4,6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-23-5FXUAKFRJBKFDSY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-512,2',4,6'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether189084-57-9WKBBBTLDLKYGBI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-522,2',5,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-24-6CDTHXJORUCZHMD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-532,2',5,6'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-25-7SDVQGIMOFXMKHR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-542,2',6,6'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-26-8WCDCHQGVTZHVSO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-552,3,3',4-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-27-9VIHUMJGEWQPWOT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-562,3,3',4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-28-0NFOIVCGFYJIYIB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-572,3,3',5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether337513-82-3CSIFWDKYUJLQEB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-582,3,3',5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-29-1SWOYBZHGPZIRHS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-592,3,3',6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-30-4DMAMJZQQOWYEHT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-602,3,4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-31-5ARERIMFZYPFJAV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-612,3,4,5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-32-6NDRSXNBQWAOQPP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-622,3,4,6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-33-7YIQYWYZZLOZVRM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-632,3,4',5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-34-8HNICYXFGCWPYGC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-642,3,4',6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-35-9LDCXVFJUWKKBNY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-652,3,5,6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-36-0HPEUYVBOPJQVPN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-662,3',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether189084-61-5DHUMTYRHKMCVAG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-672,3',4,5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-37-1OARGWSONVLGXQA-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-682,3',4,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-38-2UFWGRLCUOLLWAO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-692,3',4,6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether327185-09-1NHZNRCYNZJADTG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-702,3',4',5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-39-3GHQMTYWQVJZWAR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-712,3',4',6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether189084-62-6COPAGYRSCJVION-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-722,3',5,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-40-6GBBNZKQTOOZGIS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-732,3',5',6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-41-7WQFLVWXBCRJAQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-742,4,4',5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-42-8LXCFDVVDUVPAGR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-752,4,4',6-tetrabromodiphenyl ether189084-63-7BWCNKMFFUGBFGB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-762,3',4',5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-43-9NCSWBJSFVPJPPK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-773,3',4,4'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether93703-48-1RYGLOWMCGZHYRQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-783,3',4,5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-45-1HWOBLTZZSVXBOJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-793,3',4,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-48-4LELQGHJEUVRPEV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-803,3',5,5'-tetrabromodiphenyl ether103173-66-6HFIOZJQRZKNPKJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-813,4,4',5-tetrabromodiphenyl ether446254-50-8ULFOIXCXIWHJDS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-822,2',3,3',4-pentabromodiphenyl ether327185-11-5RQMSPGJESCCPQX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-832,2',3,3',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-51-9XAHYSNUYJLNDBX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-842,2',3,3',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-52-0PPIZNRAVQHNLJM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-852,2',3,4,4'-pentabromodiphenyl ether182346-21-0DMLQSUZPTTUUDP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-862,2',3,4,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-53-1YMVWYUWOUOQCQP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-872,2',3,4,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-54-2WKYQUGCIKNOXFW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-882,2',3,4,6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-55-3OPZUHBCVIZNZFB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-892,2',3,4,6'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-56-4XGFLJLJXVIMCNR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-902,2',3,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-57-5BATFXMGTVIESIQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-912,2',3,4',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-58-6HWNJTZKDPNZUSO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-922,2',3,5,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-59-7QWSQOVAGRDRZLM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-932,2',3,5,6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-60-0BRTPVPJQMWLDNO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-942,2',3,5,6'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-61-1JOPASNJHCFYVHD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-952,2',3,5',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-62-2BZDYRALIEYVMEP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-962,2',3,6,6'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-63-3ZFCJNRDWGBZUED-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-972,2',3,4',5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-64-4MAGYDGJRSCULJL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-982,2',3,4',6'-pentabromodiphenyl ether38463-82-0OCLWEJVGAUFXQU-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-992,2',4,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether60348-60-9WHPVYXDFIXRKLN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1002,2',4,4',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether189084-64-8NSKIRYMHNFTRLR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1012,2',4,5,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-65-5QUZWDWNIWWAQDI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1022,2',4,5,6'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-66-6JHFMCUVMAIQWRI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1032,2',4,5',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-67-7RJEMKRNASVHYKR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1042,2',4,6,6'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-68-8CRSCWEYUPUKHPI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1052,3,3',4,4'-pentabromodiphenyl ether373594-78-6LBPWAGZGYNOKAM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1062,3,3',4,5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-69-9KLQKWMYXEWUAFP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1072,3,3',4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-70-2OMGVAMFMRSETEG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1082,3,3',4,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-71-3VBKPKHVLHGOKOJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1092,3,3',4,6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-72-4FXXXWTMLIQLDRP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1102,3,3',4',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-73-5LESZGJVTZILBTK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1112,3,3',5,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-74-6PCHDCOXHJBWEPW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1122,3,3',5,6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-75-7MFBMNSFADPTAKZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1132,3,3',5',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-76-8OGZHLJXRGZFVLI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1142,3,4,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-77-9SFNAUTSNWPPDSY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1152,3,4,4',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-78-0BKTLDVXDOVSTEV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1162,3,4,5,6-pentabromodiphenyl ether189084-65-9ACRQLFSHISNWRY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1172,3,4',5,6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-79-1SOJBOGWFDBDWEG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1182,3',4,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-80-4VTMFEPLDDHZBGI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1192,3',4,4',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether189084-66-0KXEOYBYEJCRPGB-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1202,3',4,5,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether417727-71-0AKSBEUHDCRZJAN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1212,3',4,5',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-81-5GVGNVZBJVFDAAO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1222,3,3',4',5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-82-6CDNHGSPFIUITTN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1232,3',4,4',5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-83-7SBKMUEQNZNDYFW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1242,3',4',5,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-84-8FGHJTAAHIFEHLT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1252,3',4',5',6-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-85-9SESXKFPOVUVGLR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1263,3',4,4',5-pentabromodiphenyl ether366791-32-4SJNIIWPIAVQNRK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1273,3',4,5,5'-pentabromodiphenyl ether446254-86-0RATMRXKBPDCKCZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1282,2',3,3',4,4'-hexabromodiphenyl ether182677-28-7WFLVELCLEGVBIH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1292,2',3,3',4,5-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-87-1PRNCVYAUCSGSOE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1302,2',3,3',4,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-88-2YURCHLXPAGSJHU-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1312,2',3,3',4,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-89-3MGKVPJFIGGBCBA-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1322,2',3,3',4,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-90-6FFEKBOKDYRZGRV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1332,2',3,3',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-91-7XTBFPFHQPGZZJX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1342,2',3,3',5,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-92-8MIBDGPWSGDWIQR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1352,2',3,3',5,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-93-9AMGHASDTWACNCS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1362,2',3,3',6,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-94-0NTWGDSLWLUPCDW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1372,2',3,4,4',5-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-95-1HSTYYNPYXZYIAG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1382,2',3,4,4',5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether182677-30-1IZFQCEZFGCMHOM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1392,2',3,4,4',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-96-2YESDYWNWEVPOLZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1402,2',3,4,4',6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether243982-83-4FLRODCDHJZNIGA-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1412,2',3,4,5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-97-3XTXIYMGRRUJOIT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1422,2',3,4,5,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-98-4LJDGJCNHVGGOFW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1432,2',3,4,5,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446254-99-5RQLZDUSZXOOBTM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1442,2',3,4,5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-00-1ZMSJCQOCTPYCQP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1452,2',3,4,6,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-01-2BTKLHMBWCRVCLC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1462,2',3,4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-02-3HGXPYDNHBUCRTR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1472,2',3,4',5,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether116995-33-6OWBKWMDBTWHGHS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1482,2',3,4',5,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-03-4OJMHGSMSQZEBFH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1492,2',3,4',5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-04-5UJOUSZKYGGTPFQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1502,2',3,4',6,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-05-6SQNOZOVDXXSLSG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1512,2',3,5,5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-06-7NGOQQUYCSISZMY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1522,2',3,5,6,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-07-8BYBJJARTBKUIJD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1532,2',4,4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether68631-49-2RZXIRSKYBISPGF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1542,2',4,4',5,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether207122-15-4VHNPZYZQKWIWOD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1552,2',4,4',6,6'-hexabromodiphenyl ether35854-94-5HRSCBOSGEKXXSI-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1562,3,3',4,4',5-hexabromodiphenyl ether405237-85-6JSDPCMJWYRDQEV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1572,3,3',4,4',5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-08-9JUOAMVUIJQJZSZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1582,3,3',4,4',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-09-0KRYHHTVQOOJNHQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1592,3,3',4,5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-10-3IDYFFNCFLRCOPZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1602,3,3',4,5,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-11-4OCVOYHGOXIIONK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1612,3,3',4,5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-12-5WEYWRBBPPKSRGU-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1622,3,3',4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-13-6UKPNCLHMNJCGCJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1632,3,3',4',5,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-14-7NUEAHMLXQFHEJN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1642,3,3',4',5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-15-8UJVYVXIHTJOJBZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1652,3,3',5,5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-16-9KXERERDGMTWBGZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1662,3,4,4',5,6-hexabromodiphenyl ether189084-58-0KVYODBMKQYVNEK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1672,3',4,4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-17-0NMUPLZRHSXJCJQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1682,3',4,4',5',6-hexabromodiphenyl ether53551-87-4HWZAPXGFMVEGPW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1693,3',4,4',5,5'-hexabromodiphenyl ether446255-18-1JKFBMDHBJYKFKL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1702,2',3,3',4,4',5-heptabromodiphenyl ether327185-13-7DLPNCMQTNWLTHD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1712,2',3,3',4,4',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-19-2FRMMMROUUPQUMZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1722,2',3,3',4,5,5'-heptabromodiphenyl ether407606-59-1DSRRSKFMOJQETR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1732,2',3,3',4,5,6-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-20-5NLBLNZDNOSSGPW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1742,2',3,3',4,5,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-21-6VUUWOHUOYUGBEO-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1752,2',3,3',4,5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether6255-22-7YATZWTXATDYQCK-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1762,2',3,3',4,6,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether407606-61-5SWUALKCOTZOSMY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1772,2',3,3',4,5',6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-23-8ZHUHLPXIJIBQBJ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1782,2',3,3',5,5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-24-9UWUVZUPEEORCRG-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1792,2',3,3',5,6,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-25-0COVXWWKOLMNRQE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1802,2',3,4,4',5,5'-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-26-1STMBXVOJNOJRPZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1812,2',3,4,4',5,6-heptabromodiphenyl ether189084-67-1GVNRIAPLVGNZPL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1822,2',3,4,4',5,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether442690-45-1ZYHDTADADSNMLV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1832,2',3,4,4',5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether207122-16-5ILPSCQCLBHQUEM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1842,2',3,4,4',6,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether117948-63-7JHDCZVAQPRXHEL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1852,2',3,4,5,5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether405237-86-7YRNMIFAQDSUFTR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1862,2',3,4,5,6,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-27-2WUFQDCMRKKDNSF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1872,2',3,4',5,5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-28-3RFZPXOBFDARWHV-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1882,2',3,4',5,6,6'-heptabromodiphenyl ether116995-32-5YGYDHFDPVGAMTL-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1892,3,3',4,4',5,5'-heptabromodiphenyl ether259087-35-9CQVLRTUESBMMJW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1902,3,3',4,4',5,6-heptabromodiphenyl ether189084-68-2OUEYHQIMJGHOQN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1912,3,3',4,4',5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-30-7BNBFKFHSIPERIM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1922,3,3',4,5,5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether407578-53-4ABLZOLAUBUSUHT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1932,3,3',4',5,5',6-heptabromodiphenyl ether446255-34-1AUFJSWANTKXCFZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1942,2',3,3',4,4',5,5'-octabromodiphenyl ether32536-52-0ORYGKUIDIMIRNN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1952,2',3,3',4,4',5,6-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-38-5GPQLSLKPHQEEOP-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1962,2',3,3',4,4',5,6'-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-39-6IEWFKOVTVJNWFF-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1972,2',3,3',4,4',6,6'-octabromodiphenyl ether117964-21-3AAFUUKPTSPVXJH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1982,2',3,3',4,5,5',6-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-42-1IBKRHVDFFHQOSC-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-1992,2',3,3',4,5,5',6'-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-43-2JNSLJYRXDGBNBE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2002,2',3,3',4,5,6,6'-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-46-5JWMXGEPFVCRXQR-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2012,2',3,3',4,5',6,6'-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-50-1HQWFMMKREWXIGN-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2022,2',3,3',5,5',6,6'-octabromodiphenyl ether67797-09-5AHNZLQAZTWRRDW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2032,2',3,4,4',5,5',6-octabromodiphenyl ether337513-72-1RTUZOQFRIPIWPS-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2042,2',3,4,4',5,6,6'-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-54-5YZABCBOJTHQTSX-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2052,3,3',4,4',5,5',6-octabromodiphenyl ether446255-56-7CVMKCYDBEYHNBM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2062,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6-nonabromodiphenyl ether63387-28-0CYRHBNRLQMLULE-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2072,2',3,3',4,4',5,6,6'-nonabromodiphenyl ether437701-79-6IEEVDIAVLGLVOW-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-2082,2',3,3',4,5,5',6,6'-nonabromodiphenyl ether437701-78-5ASGZXYIDLFWXID-UHFFFAOYSA-N
PBDE-209decabromodiphenyl ether1163-19-5WHHGLZMJPXIBIX-UHFFFAOYSA-N

Production

PBDEs were produced commercially via the bromination of diphenyl ether,[7] with three technical-grade mixtures being sold, varying by degree of bromination.

In the United States, PBDEs were marketed with the trade names DE-60F, DE-61, DE-62, and DE-71 applied to pentaBDE mixtures, DE-79 applied to octaBDE mixtures, and DE 83R and Saytex 102E applied to decaBDE mixtures. The available commercial PBDE products were not single compounds or even single congeners but rather mixtures of congeners.

Technical pentaBDE predominantly contained pentabromo derivatives (50–62%); however, the mixture also contained tetrabromides (24–38%) and hexabromides (4–8%), as well as traces of the tribromides (0–1%). Technical octaBDE was a mixture of homologs: hexa-, hepta-, octa-, nona-, and decabromides. Technical decaBDE was 97% decabromide, with small amounts of octa- and nonabromides.[6]

Commercial production of PBDEs began in the 1970s,[8] and continued until the early 2010s. Cumulative global production is estimated to have been 175kt for pentaBDE, 130kt for octaBDE, and 1600kt for decaBDE.[9]

Health and environmental concerns

Exposure

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) can be released into the environment where they are used or produced, possibly entering air, water, soil or the human digestive system when consumed, inhaled or via the skin.[10] [11] Despite the banning and phase out of several forms of PBDEs, many consumer products still contain them in the 21st century, and represent potential exposure sources, including furniture and other consumer products containing polyurethane foam, appliances, pipes, plastics, and old electronic equipment.[10] [12]

Generally, governments have determined that PBDEs are not harmful to human health in the exposure amounts assessed.[10] [11] Ingestion of house dust accounts for 80-90% of total PBDE exposure, while the remaining exposure occurs from food ingestion.[10] [11] PBDE-contaminated foods, particularly those high in fat content, such as fatty meats or fish, are possible sources of exposure.[10] In breastfeeding infants, breast milk may be an exposure source because PBDEs can be present in the mother and her milk.[10] Various other food items may contain PBDEs, including meat, meat products, dairy products, and seafood.[10] [13]

PBDEs have not been detected beyond trace levels in water.[10] In the environment, soils and sediments are the major deposits for PBDEs.[10] PBDEs can enter soil from discarded products, such as in landfills. As biosolids (sewage) may contain PBDEs, exposure from soils or farmlands that have been fertilized with biosolids may occur.[10] Wildlife may have exposure by consuming foods containing PBDEs, whereas organisms that live in sediments may be contaminated by PBDEs.[11]

Excretion

PBDEs and their metabolites are excreted mainly in the feces and some in the urine.[10] Owing to their deposition in body fat stores, some PBDEs remain in the body for many years, and may enter the bodies of unborn babies via the placenta.[10]

Research on health effects

Nothing certain has been established about the effects of PBDEs on human health.[10] [11] [13] Most information regarding toxicity of PBDEs and their metabolites is from early-stage animal studies.[13] Evidence for PBDE-mediated effects from human studies in systems other than the developing nervous system, such as in cancer development, is inconclusive or non-existent.[10] Particularly for the potential effects of PBDEs on the developing fetus, research has focused on the health status of mothers and gestational age of the infant.[14]

Sediment contamination

Increasing environmental concentrations and changing distributions of PBDEs in sediments of the Clyde River Estuary in Scotland, UK have been assessed.[15] Analysis of six sediment cores each of 1 m depth from Glasgow city to Greenock revealed that total concentrations increased toward the river bed surface (0–10 cm). Amounts of PBDE ranged from 1 to 2,645 µg/kg (dry wt. sediment) with a mean of 287 µg/kg (dry wt. sediment).[15] Down-core PBDE congener profiles showed that higher concentrations were due to elevated levels of BDE-209. The majority of the sediment records clearly showed a change from mainly lower molecular weight BDEs 47,99, 183, 153 at lower depths to BDE-209 near the surface, a change in congener and homologue group patterns that corresponds to the restrictions of penta- and octaBDE commercial mixtures under EU law in 2004–2006.

While biodegradation is not considered the main pathway for PBDEs, photolysis and pyrolysis can be of interest in studies of transformation of PBDEs.[16] [17]

Regulations of PBDEs

United States

In August, 2003, the State of California outlawed the sale of penta- and octaBDE and products containing them, effective January 1, 2008.[18] PBDEs are ubiquitous in the environment, and, according to the EPA, exposure may pose health risks. According to U.S. EPA's Integrated Risk Information System, evidence indicates that PBDEs may possess liver toxicity, thyroid toxicity, and neurodevelopmental toxicity.[19] [20] In June 2008, the U.S. EPA set a safe daily exposure level ranging from 0.1 to 7 μg/kg body weight per day for the four most common PBDE congeners.[21] [22] In April 2007, the legislature of the state of Washington passed a bill banning the use of PBDEs.[23] The State of Maine Department of Environmental Protection has restrictions on PBDEs, and in 2008, the legislature passed a bill phasing out the use of decaBDE.[24]

The U.S. importers and manufacturers of PBDEs withdrew pentaBDE and octaBDE from sale in 2004, and decaBDE from sale by the end of 2013.[6] [25] In November 2024, the EPA added decaBDE to the Toxic Substances Control Act to prohibit release into water during manufacturing, processing or distribution in commerce of decaBDE and decaBDE-containing products, and a phase-out of processing and distribution of wire and cable insulation containing decaDBE for nuclear power facilities.[26]

Canada

Since 2012, PBDEs are among chemicals prohibited from manufacture, use, sale, offer for sale or import, as regulated in the Prohibition of Certain Toxic Substances Regulations of the 1999 Canadian Environmental Protection Act.[27] PBDEs are regarded in the regulation as "toxic to the environment and/or human health, are generally persistent, bioaccumulative, and/or inherently toxic."[27]

European Union

The European Union decided to ban the use of two classes of flame retardants, in particular, PBDEs and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) in electric and electronic devices.[12] This ban was formalised in the RoHS Directive, and an upper limit of 1 g/kg for the sum of PBBs and PBDEs was set. In February 2009, the Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements released two certified reference materials to help analytical laboratories better detect these two classes of flame retardants. The reference materials were custom-made to contain all relevant PBDEs and PBBs at levels close to the legal limit.[12]

International

At an international level, in May 2009 the Parties of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) decided to list commercial pentaBDE and commercial octaBDE as POP substances. This listing is due to the properties of hexaBDE and heptaBDE, which are components of commercial octaBDE, and to the properties of tetraBDE and pentaBDE, which are the main components of commercial pentaBDE.[28] In 2017, it was decided to also list decaBDE.[3] [29]

Alternatives

Major decaBDE producers have switched to manufacturing decabromodiphenyl ethane, a structurally related compound that has also come under suspicion as an environmental pollutant.[30] Non-halogenated alternatives also exist.[30] [25]

References

  1. 3113369 . 21591615 . 10.1021/es2007462 . 45 . 12 . Identification of flame retardants in polyurethane foam collected from baby products . 2011 . Environ. Sci. Technol. . 5323–31 . Stapleton HM, Klosterhaus S, Keller A, Ferguson PL, van Bergen S, Cooper E, Webster TF, Blum A . 2011EnST...45.5323S .
  2. . Governments unite to step-up reduction on global DDT reliance and add nine new chemicals under international treaty . Geneva . Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention . 8 May 2009 . http://web.archive.org/web/20230807091036/https://www.pops.int/Convention/Pressrelease/COP4Geneva8May2009/tabid/542/language/en-US/Default.aspx . 7 August 2023.
  3. Web site: C.N.766.2017.TREATIES-XXVII.15 (Depositary Notification) Amendments to annexes A and C . United Nations . Stockholm Convention . 18 December 2017 . CN.766.2017 . http://web.archive.org/web/20180426075754/https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/CN/2017/CN.766.2017-Eng.pdf#page=16 . 26 April 2018.
  4. Science of the Total Environment . 275 . 1–3 . Frank Rahman. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants . 1–17 . 2001. etal . 10.1016/s0048-9697(01)00852-x . 11482396. 2001ScTEn.275....1R.
  5. News: . Rapidly rising PBDE levels in North America . https://web.archive.org/web/20021107221431/http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2001/dec/science/kb_pbde.html . dead . 2002-11-07 . Kellyn S. Betts . 2001-12-07.
  6. Web site: Toxicological Profile for Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) . 22 March 2017 . 8 September 2024 . Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry . http://web.archive.org/web/20240811020247/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp207.pdf . 11 August 2024.
  7. Darnerud . P O . Eriksen . G S . Jóhannesson . T . Larsen . P B . Viluksela . M . Polybrominated diphenyl ethers: occurrence, dietary exposure, and toxicology. . . 109 . suppl 1 . 2001 . 0091-6765 . 11250805 . 1240542 . 10.1289/ehp.01109s149 . 49–68.
  8. Web site: Guidance for the inventory of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (draft, revised Jan 2017) . chm.pops.int . Secretariat of the Stockholm Convention . January 2017 . 12 September 2024 .
  9. Abbasi . Golnoush . Li . Li . Breivik . Knut . Global Historical Stocks and Emissions of PBDEs . Environmental Science & Technology . 53 . 11 . 4 June 2019 . 10.1021/acs.est.8b07032 . 6330–6340. 11250/2611702 . free .
  10. Web site: Public Health Statement for PBDEs . Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 24 December 2024 . 8 May 2017.
  11. Web site: Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) - information sheet . Health Canada, Government of Canada . 24 December 2024 . 14 September 2023.
  12. Web site: Brominated flame retardants . European Food Safety Authority . 24 December 2024 . 23 October 2024.
  13. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain . Update of the risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in food . EFSA Journal . 24 January 2024 . 22 . 1 . e8497 . 10.2903/j.efsa.2024.8497 . 10807361.
  14. Wang Z, Zhang C, Williams PL, Bellavia A, Wylie BJ, Hacker MR, Kannan K, Bloom MS, Hunt KJ, Hauser R, James-Todd T. 3 . Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in early pregnancy and preterm birth: Findings from the NICHD Fetal Growth Studies . International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health . 243 . 113978 . June 2022 . 35569252 . 9302707 . 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.113978.
  15. Vane. Christopher H.. Ma. Yun-Juan. Chen. She-Jun. Mai. Bi-Xian. Increasing polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) contamination in sediment cores from the inner Clyde Estuary, UK . Environmental Geochemistry and Health . 32. 1. 2009. 13–21. 0269-4042. 10.1007/s10653-009-9261-6. 19347590. 102768.
  16. Hutzinger O . Polybrominated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans . . 16 . 1877–1880 . 1987 . 10.1016/0045-6535(87)90181-0 . Thoma . H. . 8–9 . etal. 1987Chmsp..16.1877H .
  17. Watanabe I . Polybrominated diphenyl ethers in marine fish, shellfish and river sediments in Japan . . 16 . 2389–2396 . 1987 . 10.1016/0045-6535(87)90297-9 . Kashimoto . Takashi . Tatsukawa . Ryo . 10–12 . etal. 1987Chmsp..16.2389W .
  18. Web site: BILL NUMBER: AB 302, An act to add Chapter 10 (commencing with Section 108920) to Part 3 of Division 104 of the Health and Safety Code, relating to toxic substances.. www.leginfo.ca.gov.
  19. US Environmental Protection Agency. Toxicological Profile for Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209), Integrated Risk Information System, June 2008.
  20. US Environmental Protection Agency. Toxicological Profile for 2,2',4,4',5-Pentabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-99), Integrated Risk Information System, June 2008.
  21. US Environmental Protection Agency. Toxicological Profile for 2,2',4,4'-Tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47), Integrated Risk Information System, June 2008.
  22. US Environmental Protection Agency. Toxicological Profile for 2,2',4,4',5,5'-Hexabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-153), Integrated Risk Information System, June 2008.
  23. http://www.seattlepi.com/local/311845_pbdes17.html "Chemical ban puts industry on the defensive."
  24. Web site: Restrictions on sale and distribution of brominated flame retardants . Maine Legislature . 26 December 2024 . 1 January 2006.
  25. Web site: Partnership to Evaluate Flame Retardant Alternatives to DecaBDE . United States Environmental Protection Agency . 31 January 2014 . 8 September 2024 . http://web.archive.org/web/20150317045713/https://www.epa.gov/saferchoice/partnership-evaluate-flame-retardant-alternatives-decabde . 17 March 2015.
  26. Web site: Decabromodiphenyl Ether and Phenol, Isopropylated Phosphate (3:1); Revision to the Regulation of Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Chemicals Under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) . Federal Register, 40 CFR Part 751, Environmental Protection Agency . 26 December 2024 . 19 November 2024.
  27. Web site: Prohibition of Certain Toxic Substances Regulations, 2012: frequently asked questions . Environment and Climate Change Canada, Government of Canada . 26 December 2024 . 8 March 2022.
  28. Web site: Information on the 16 chemicals added to the Stockholm Convention. Stockholm Convention Clearing. House.
  29. Sharkey. Martin. Harrad. Stuart. Abou-Elwafa Abdallah. Mohamed. Drage. Daniel S.. Berresheim. Harald. 2020. Phasing-out of legacy brominated flame retardants: The UNEP Stockholm Convention and other legislative action worldwide. Environment International. 144. 106041. 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106041. 32822924. free. 10379/16242. free.
  30. Book: 10.1002/14356007.a11_123.pub2 . Flame Retardants . Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry . 2021 . Beard . Adrian . Battenberg . Christian . Sutker . Burton J. . 978-3-527-30385-4 . 261178139.

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