Terrorism in Europe explained

history of terrorism in Europe. This has often been linked to nationalist and separatist movements (separating countries), while other acts have been related to politics (including anarchism, far-right and far-left extremism), religious extremism, or organized crime. Terrorism in the European sections of the intercontinental countries of Turkey and Russia are not included in this list.

History

Definitions

Defining terrorism is difficult, and there are more than one hundred definitions of it in scholarly literature. The term is used in polemical contexts, thus it can become a move in a campaign rather than an aid to thought.[1] A simple definition would be "use of force against innocent people for political purposes". Some scholars argue that there is no true or correct definition due to terrorism being an abstract concept without a real presence. Legal definitions contain internal contradictions and might be misused.[2] There is an overlap between terrorism and various other forms of conflict and violent action, including civil wars[3] or non-international armed conflicts. This is the case with several significant non-international conflicts in Europe, where there thus can be dispute as to what counts as terrorism: examples include the Irish War of Independence (1919–21), the breakup of Yugoslavia and subsequent conflicts,[4] the First (1994–6) and Second Chechen Wars (1999–2009), and the War of Dagestan (1999).

Early history

In the Middle Ages, maritime nations in Europe sponsored pirates and privateering against rivals, which can be compared to terrorism.[5] [6] The term "terror" is used about the reign of terror in France, carried out by the Jacobins in 1792-4.

Modern trends

Terrorism in Europe around the beginning of the twentieth century was often associated with anarchism.[7] [8]

Terrorism within the European Communities since 1951 has often been linked to separatist movements, including the Irish Republican Army within the United Kingdom, and Euskadi Ta Askatasuna within Spain. Other perpetrators have been linked to far-right and far-left extremism, environmental extremism and anarchism. Since 2001, there has been an increase in attacks linked to extremist groups, particularly in France. Many separatist terrorist activities also have a religious angle, as, for example, with Chechen separatism in Russia.

There have been recent increases in the number of high-fatality attacks. There had been a decrease in the number of overall fatalities from terrorist attacks between 1990 and 2015, compared to those between 1970 and 1990.[9] Prior to 1990, on average 150 people died each year from terrorist attacks; this figure would be even higher if the large number of people who died in 1988 from the Pan Am 2013 bombing were included. From 1990, an average of a little under 50 people died each year. There was an increase of fatalities from 2011, with the attacks by far-right extremist Anders Breivik in Norway, and Islamist extremist attacks in France in 2015 and 2016.

Europol has published an annual trend report on terrorist attacks (including failed, foiled, and completed attacks) and terrorist-related arrests in the EU since 2006. The reports identify that perpetrators' known or suspected affiliations have been disparate in nature. Europol break these down into five categories: jihadist terrorism (previously termed "religiously-inspired terrorism"); ethno-nationalist and separatist terrorism; left-wing and anarchist terrorism; right-wing terrorism; and single-issue terrorism. Europol's reports do not provide a breakdown of the proportion of attacks that have been completed or the type of damage inflicted. According to these data, the vast majority of terrorist attacks in the EU between 2006 and 2013 were affiliated with ethnonational or separatist motives, followed by left-wing and anarchist attacks, and those that are registered as 'unspecified'. A significant number of terror attacks were motivated religiously or associated with right-wing groups. Among those arrested on terror-related crimes, most were religiously motivated and form the largest group, followed by separatist related terror suspects.

In 2015, a total of 211 completed, failed, or foiled terrorist attacks were reported by EU states, resulting in 151 fatalities (of which 148 were in France, with 130 of them occurring during the November 2015 Paris attacks) and over 360 people injured. As in previous years, separatist attacks accounted for the largest proportion (65), followed by jihadist attacks (17). Jihadist attacks caused the largest number of fatalities (150) and injuries (250). The United Kingdom reported the largest number of attacks (103) but did not provide statistics on suspected affiliation. Tackling jihadist terrorism threats has become an over-riding priority for security services, although many commentators express concerns that the risk of far-right terrorism is currently being underestimated.

In 2017, British intelligence MI5 said that Northern Ireland is the most concentrated area of terrorist activity "probably anywhere in Europe", with weekly threats from dissident Irish republicans.[10]

Europol report all deaths from terrorist activity in 2018 were caused by jihadist terrorism. As of 2019, Europol reported that left-wing terrorist groups in the EU had appeared to have ceased their operational activities.

In 2023, Hamas linked operatives, planning a terrorist attack, against Jews and Israelis in Denmark were arrested by the Mossad and Danish authorities.[11]

Prevention

International cooperation

See main article: Europol, Interpol and Counter Terrorism Group. European states were at the fore of plans for an international criminal court under the League of Nations in the 1930s, working through the Committee for the Repression of Terrorism (CRT). The CRT sought to define terrorism and get nation's domestic policies to support anti-terrorism activities. Opposition by Britain and tensions over fascism in Germany and Italy limited the final proposals.[12]

Current European cooperation in the field of counter-terrorism includes the European Police Office (Europol), an EU agency, and Interpol. TREVI was an early example of EU cooperation in this field.

The main transnational activity to combat terrorism in recent years has been through Europol. They have categorised acts of terrorism that have either failed, been foiled or been successfully executed within the European Union (EU) as either pertaining to religious issues, right-wing, left-wing or separatist movements. The field is subject to considerable cooperation among national authorities.

National authorities

In July 2014 France introduced legislation to combat terrorism by toughening surveillance, making it lawful to detain individuals linked to radical "Islamist" groups, and to block Internet sites that incite anti-Semitism, terrorism and hatred. The country's Interior Minister Bernard Cazeneuve revealed 600 French nationals were in Syria at the time or planned to go there. The bill includes a ban on foreign travel for up to six months for those believed to hold terrorist sympathies, provides for the confiscation and invalidation of passports, and prohibits airlines from allowing such individuals to fly.[13]

From 2005, the United Kingdom government introduced the CONTEST strategy, which seeks to improve co-operation between security services, and other public and private organisations.[14] This includes four strands, namely Pursue, (seeking to apprehend potential terrorists), Prevent, (seeking to reduce risks of 'radicalisation', deter potential terrorists and share information), Protect, (seeking to ensure the security of potential targets and organisations is optimised), and Prepare, (seeking to ensure an effective response in the immediate aftermath of any attack). Similar strategies have been adopted by other countries across the European Union, and there have been increases in co-operation between nations and security forces.

Incidents

Deadliest attacks

The following is a list of terrorist incidents in Europe which resulted in at least ten civilian deaths. It lists attacks on civilians by non-state actors that are widely referred to as terrorism. It excludes attacks that took place in transcontinental countries such as Turkey and Russia. For incidents in Russia, see Terrorism in Russia and for incidents in Turkey, see Terrorism in Turkey.

Key: motivation
DateCountry/RegionIncidentdata-sort-type="number" CasualtiesPerpetrator
Assassination attempt on King Louis Philippe I18 killed, 23 injured (inc. 1 perp.)[15] Giuseppe Marco Fieschi
Clerkenwell explosion12 killed, 120 injured[16] Irish Republican Brotherhood
Gran Teatre del Liceu bombing20+ killed, 40+ injured[17] Santiago Salvador Franch
Barcelona Corpus Christi procession bombing12 killed, 44 injuredAnarchists (suspected)
Thessaloniki bombings of 190316 killed (inc. 6 perp.), 16 injured[18] Boatmen of Thessaloniki
Botched assassination of Alfonso XIII30 killed, 100 injured[19] Mateo Morral Rocca
Congress PolandBloody Wednesday19 to 200 killed, 43 to >100 injured[20] [21] Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party
Bolgrad palace bombing 100 killed[22] Bessarabian Separatists
Diana Theatre bombing (Milan)21 killed, 172 injured[23] Anarchists
St Nedelya Church bombing150 killed, 500+ injured[24] Bulgarian Communist Party
Portella della Ginestra massacre 11 killed, 33 wounded[25] Salvatore Giuliano
Vitry-Le-François train bombing28 killed, 100+ injured[26] Organisation Armée Secrète
Cyprus Airways Flight 284 bombing66 killed[27] Unsolved
Piazza Fontana bombing17 killed, 88 injured[28] Ordine Nuovo
Swissair Flight 330 bombing47 killed[29] PFLP-GC
McGurk's Bar bombing15 killed, 17 injured[30] Ulster Volunteer Force
JAT Flight 367 bombing27 killed[31] Ustaše (suspected)
Munich massacre17 killed[32] Black September
Rome airport attacks34 killed, 22 injured[33] Black September
M62 coach bombing12 killed, 38 injured[34] Provisional IRA
Dublin and Monaghan bombings34 killed, 300 injured[35] Ulster Volunteer Force
Italicus Express bombing12 killed, 48 injured[36] Ordine Nero
TWA Flight 841 bombing88 killed[37] Abu Nidal Organization
Cafetería Rolando bombing13 killed, 71 injured[38] ETA
Birmingham pub bombings21 killed, 182 injured[39] Provisional IRA
Kingsmill massacre10 killed, 1 injured[40] South Armagh Republican Action Force
La Mon restaurant bombing12 killed, 30 injured[41] Provisional IRA
Bologna massacre85 killed, 200+ injured[42] Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari
Oktoberfest bombing13 killed (inc. 1 perp.), 211 injured[43] Gundolf Köhler
Hyde Park and Regent's Park bombings11 killed, 50 injured[44] Provisional IRA
Droppin Well bombing17 killed, 30 injured[45] Irish National Liberation Army
Train 904 bombing16 killed, 267 injured[46] Sicilian Mafia
El Descanso bombing18 killed, 82 injured[47] Islamic Jihad Organization
Atlantic Ocean in Irish airspaceAir India Flight 182 bombing329 killed[48] Babbar Khalsa
EgyptAir Flight 648 hijacking60 killed (inc. 2 perps.)[49] Abu Nidal Organization

Rome and Vienna airport attacks23 killed (inc. 4 perps.), 139 injured[50] Abu Nidal Organization
Plaza República Dominicana bombing12 killed, 32 injured[51] ETA
Hipercor bombing21 killed, 45 injured[52] ETA
Remembrance Day bombing12 killed, 63 injured[53] Provisional IRA
Zaragoza Barracks bombing11 killed, 88 injured[54] ETA
Pan Am Flight 103 bombing270 killed[55] Abdelbaset al-Megrahi
Deal barracks bombing11 killed, 21 injured[56] Provisional IRA
Vic bombing10 killed, 44 injured[57] [58] ETA
Omagh bombing29 killed, 300+ injured[59] Real IRA
Podujevo bus bombing12 killed, 40 injured [60] Kosovo Albanian Militants (suspected)
Zug massacre15 killed (inc. 1 perp.), 18 injured[61] Friedrich Leibacher
Madrid train bombings193 killed, 2,050 injured[62] Al-Qaeda
2005 London bombings56 killed, (inc. 4 perps.), 784 injured[63] Al-Qaeda
Minsk Metro bombing15 killed, 204 injured[64] Dzimitry Kanavalau and Vlad Kavalyou
Norway attacks77 killed, 319 injured[65] Anders Behring Breivik
data-sort-value=7–9 Jan 2015January 2015 Île-de-France attacks20 killed (inc. 3 perps.), 22 injured[66] Al-Qaeda
Volnovakha bus attack12 killed, 18 injured[67] Donetsk People's Republic (suspected)
November 2015 Paris attacks137 killed (inc. 7 perps.), 413 injured[68] [69] Islamic State
Brussels bombings35 killed (inc. 3 perps.), 340 injured[70]
Nice truck attack87 killed (inc. 1 perp.), 434 injured[71]
2016 Munich shooting10 killed (inc. 1 perp.), 36 injured[72] David Sonboly
Berlin Christmas market attack13 killed, 55 injured[73] [74] Islamic State
Manchester Arena bombing23 killed (inc. 1 perp.), 250 injured[75]
data-sort-value=17–18 Aug 20172017 Barcelona attacks24 killed (inc. 8 perps.), 152 injured[76] [77]
Hanau shootings11 killed (inc. 1 perp.), 6 injured[78] Tobias Rathjen

Costliest attacks

These are the incidents that had the highest financial damage. By far the biggest three are listed here below, all having occurred in the United Kingdom, and all by the same organisation.[79] [80] [81]

DateCountry/RegionIncidentCost (USD)Perpetrator
London, UK1993 Bishopsgate bombing$2 billionProvisional IRA
Manchester, UK1996 Manchester bombing$996 millionProvisional IRA
City of London, UKBaltic Exchange bombing$897 millionProvisional IRA

Terrorism by country and region

See also

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Michael O'Keefe . C.A.J. Coady . Terrorism and Justice: Moral Argument in a Threatened World . 2002 . Melbourne Univ. Publishing . 978-0-522-85049-9 . 8.
  2. Book: Jonathan R. White . Terrorism and Homeland Security . 1 January 2011 . Cengage Learning . 978-0495913368 . 11.
  3. "Defining Civil War by Examining Post-Soviet Conflicts" by Pavel K. Baev, Terrorism and Political Violence, 19(2), 247-268. doi:10.1080/09546550701246965
  4. "Approaches to political violence and terrorism in former Yugoslavia 1" by Florian Bieber, Journal of Southern Europe and the Balkans 2003, 5(1): 39-51
  5. "West European Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism: The Evolving Dynamic" by P Chalk. 1996: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 2
  6. "", Charles C. Mann, 2011
  7. The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda by Gérard Chaliand & Arnaud Blin
  8. Richard Jensen, "Daggers, rifles and dynamite: Anarchist terrorism in nineteenth century Europe." Terrorism and Political Violence 2004, 16(1):116-53
  9. News: Is Terrorism in Europe at a Historical High?. 13 August 2016. World Economic Forum.
  10. Web site: MI5: Terror threat in Ireland is greatest in Europe. 2017-12-21.
  11. Web site: 2023-12-14 . Denmark, Israel's Mossad arrest Hamas-linked suspects in terror plot . 2023-12-14 . The Jerusalem Post JPost.com . en-US.
  12. Book: International Terrorism in the 1920s and '30s: The Response of European States through the League of Nations and the Attempt to Create an International Criminal Court – Oxford Scholarship. Oxford University Press. 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199660285.001.0001. 9780191757716. 2014-02-13. Lewis. Mark.
  13. News: Legislation to crack down on jihadists planned by France. 10 July 2014. France News.Net. 14 July 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714133952/http://www.francenews.net/index.php/sid/223650649/scat/e597bd109c960ae3/ht/Legislation-to-crack-down-on-jihadists-planned-by-France. dead.
  14. News: The United Kingdom's Strategy for Countering Terrorism: Annual Report 2015. 13 August 2016. Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
  15. Book: Jill Harsin. Barricades: The War of the Streets in Revolutionary Paris, 1830-1848. 2002. Palgrave Macmillan. 978-0-312-29479-3.
  16. https://books.google.com/books?id=UBw_x-YTC-UC&pg=PA308 The Making of Ireland: A History
  17. "Terrorism in Barcelona and Its Impact on Spanish Politics 1904-1909", by J. Romero Maura, Past & Present 1968, 41:130-183
  18. Megas G. The Boatmen of Thesalloniki. The Bulgarian anarchist group and the bomb attacks of 1903, Troxalia, 1994
  19. Book: The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to Al Qaeda. Chaliand. Gérard. Blin. Arnaud. August 2007. University of California Press. 9780520247093.
  20. Book: Anna Geifman. Thou shalt kill: revolutionary terrorism in Russia, 1894–1917. 30 December 2011. 1995. Princeton University Press. 978-0-691-02549-0. 341.
  21. Tadeusz Władysław Świątek, Rafał Chwiszczuk, Warszawski ruch społecznikowski, Fundacja Cultus, Warszawa, 2010,, p.149
  22. News: PALACE BOMBED, 100 KILLED; Bessarabian Conspirators Accused of Outrage at Bolgard . 14 December 1921 . The New York Times . 2011-10-15.
  23. 10.1080/09546550802544862. The International Campaign Against Anarchist Terrorism, 1880–1930s. Terrorism and Political Violence. 21. 89–109. 2009. Jensen. Richard Bach. 143397666.
  24. Web site: Sofia Church Terror Attack Vie for Bulgaria Top Event. The Free Library. 2010. 13 January 2017.
  25. Una strage con troppi misteri, La Sicilia, May 1, 2011
  26. News: L'attentat le plus meurtrier depuis Vitry-Le-François en 1961 . fr . The deadliest attack since Vitry-Le-François in 1961 . Marie-Estelle . Pech . Le Figaro . 7 January 2015 . 14 January 2017 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20150109121648/http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/2015/01/07/01016-20150107ARTFIG00178-historique-des-attentats-en-france-depuis-1994.php . 9 January 2015 . dmy .
  27. Flight International, 5 September 1968, p.361
  28. Book: Clutterbuck. Richard. Terrorism, Drugs & Crime in Europe After 1992. 1990. 978-0-415-61620-1. 27. 14 January 2017.
  29. Web site: Criminal Occurrence description. Aviation Safety Network. 14 January 2017.
  30. Book: Taylor, Peter . Peter Taylor (Journalist) . Loyalists . . 1999 . 978-0-7475-4519-4 . 88.
  31. Web site: Criminal Occurrence description. Aviation Safety Network. 14 January 2017.
  32. Cosgrove. Ben. Bhowmick. Nilanjana. Terror at the Olympics: Munich, 1972. https://web.archive.org/web/20150610104426/http://time.com/24489/munich-massacre-1972-olympics-photos/. dead. 10 June 2015. Time. 14 January 2017.
  33. Web site: TKB Incident Page: Other Group attacked Airports & Airlines target (Dec. 17, 1973, Italy). MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base. Memorial Institute for the Prevention of Terrorism. 14 January 2017. RAND Corporation. RAND Corporation. https://web.archive.org/web/20070930030324/http://www.tkb.org/Incident.jsp?incID=1190. 30 September 2007. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. 3 April 2001.
  34. Web site: CAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths. Malcolm. Sutton.
  35. Web site: 1974 – Car bombs explode in Dublin and Monaghan, killing 34 people. Stair na hÉireann – History of Ireland. 14 January 2017. 2015-05-17.
  36. Book: Bocca, Giorgio. Gli anni del terrorismo. it. 291–293.
  37. Web site: AAR 75-07 Boeing 707 Ionian Sea Crash. Airdisaster.com. January 14, 2017. usurped. https://web.archive.org/web/20121004122304/http://www.airdisaster.com/reports/ntsb/AAR75-07.pdf. October 4, 2012.
  38. News: Atentado de la calle del Correo: un caso similar todavía no aclarado, El Pais, 27 May 1979. Ediciones El País. EL PAÍS. 14 January 2017. 1979-05-27.
  39. The Birmingham Framework -Six Innocent Men Framed for the Birmingham Bombings; Fr. Denis Faul and Fr. Raymond Murray (1976)
  40. News: BBC ON THIS DAY - 5 - 1976: Ten dead in Northern Ireland ambush. 1976-01-05.
  41. News: BBC ON THIS DAY - 18 - 1978: Belfast bomb suspects rounded up. 1978-02-18.
  42. News: BBC ON THIS DAY - 2 - 1980: Bologna blast leaves dozens dead. 1980-08-02.
  43. News: Gerber. Larry. Neo-Nazi Group Suspected in Munich Oktoberfest Bombing. 14 January 2017. The Lewiston Daily Sun. 29 September 1980.
  44. News: 1982: IRA bombs cause carnage in London. BBC: On This Day. 24 March 2017. 1982-07-20.
  45. http://www.nuzhound.com/articles/irish_news/arts2007/dec6_Dropping_Well_INLA_nearly_called-off.php "INLA almost called off attack"
  46. Rapido 904: "Un intreccio tra mafia, camorra e politica", Il Fatto Quotidiano, January 13, 2017.
  47. Web site: Al-Qaeda suspect linked to 1985 Madrid bombing. 8 November 2005. 14 January 2017.
  48. News: The Bombing of Air India Flight 182 . CBC News Online . 25 September 2006 . 14 January 2017 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120419085800/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/airindia/bombing.html . 19 April 2012 .
  49. "EgyptAir Flight 648." Aviation Safety Network. Retrieved on January 14, 2017.
  50. Web site: Abu Nidal Organization (ANO) attacked Airports & Airlines target (Dec. 27, 1985, Austria). 27 December 2005 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060325180523/http://www.tkb.org/Incident.jsp?incID=4453 . 25 March 2006.
  51. http://www.eldiariomontanes.es/rc/20110714/mas-actualidad/nacional/anos-atentado-201107141407.html 25 años del atentado de la plaza de la República Dominicana
  52. News: Bomb explodes in Barcelona . Los Angeles Times. 2017-01-14 . 19 June 1987.
  53. News: Enniskillen bomb victim dies after 13-year coma. The Guardian. 14 January 2017. 2000-12-29.
  54. http://www.elpais.com/articulo/espana/Zaragoza/ataudes/blancos/elpepunac/20090802elpepinac_7/Tes El País: Zaragoza: cinco ataúdes blancos 2 August 2009
  55. Web site: 2007 . Clipper Maid of the Seas: Remembering those on flight 103 . panamair.org . 14 January 2017 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080326232104/http://www.panamair.org/accidents/lockerbievictims.htm . 26 March 2008 .
  56. http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/september/22/newsid_3679000/3679622.stm BBC On This Day, '1989 Remembering the Deal bombing'
  57. Web site: Timeline: Major ETA Attacks in Spain. Fox News. 2015-03-25.
  58. Web site: Vic (Barcelona) recordará hoy a las víctimas del atentado de ETA en su casa cuartel - EcoDiario.es. 2009-06-13.
  59. News: Man cleared over Omagh bombing. CNN.com. 20 December 2007. 14 January 2017.
  60. News: Serbs killed in Kosovo pilgrimage. BBC. 25 January 2017.
  61. News: Gunman kills 14 in Swiss assembly . BBC News . 27 September 2001 . 3 March 2010.
  62. Web site: Anadolu Agency. Anadolu Agency. 2019-09-14.
  63. News: Indepth London Attacks. BBC News. 14 January 2017.
  64. Web site: В Беларуси умерла еще одна жертва теракта. podrobnosti.ua. 25 April 2011. 3 April 2017.
  65. Book: Seierstad. Asne. One of Us: The Story of Anders Breivik and the Massacre in Norway. 2016. 5. 14 January 2017. 9781944195663.
  66. News: French security forces kill gunmen, end terror rampage. 14 January 2017. 9 January 2015.
  67. News: https://www.unian.net/society/1031447-prokuratura-rassleduet-obstrel-avtobusa-pod-volnovahoy-po-state-terakt.html. ru:Прокуратура расследует обстрел автобуса под Волновахой по статье "теракт". 2018-02-25. ru.
  68. Web site: Suicide d'un rescapé du Bataclan : Guillaume, 131e victime du 13 novembre. Boutry. Timothée. 2019-06-15. leparisien.fr. fr-FR. 2019-09-14.
  69. Web site: Bataclan survivor describes moment Isis gunman tried to kill her. 2016-11-12. The Independent. en. 2019-09-14.
  70. News: Brussels Attacks Death Toll Lowered To 32. The Huffington Post. 14 January 2017. 2016-03-29.
  71. News: Nice killer visited Italy's 'Little Calais' as he was radicalised over a year before July 14 massacre. 14 October 2016. The Telegraph.
  72. https://www.dw.com/en/germany-2016-munich-attack-had-radical-right-wing-motives-say-police/a-50991641 "Germany: 2016 Munich attack had 'radical right-wing' motives, say police"
  73. News: Eddy . Melissa . Germany Seeks Tunisian Tied to Berlin Christmas Market Attack . . 21 December 2016 . 14 January 2017.
  74. News: Berlin attack: First aider dies 5 years after Christmas market murders. BBC. 26 October 2021. October 26, 2021.
  75. News: Number of people injured in Manchester terror attack rises to 250. Abbit. Beth. 2017-06-22. Manchester Evening News. 2017-06-26.
  76. News: 21 August 2017 . Barcelona attack: Suspected van driver shot dead by police . 21 August 2017 . BBC.
  77. News: Burgen. Stephen. Spanish attacks death toll rises to 16 after woman dies in hospital. The Guardian. 30 August 2017. 2017-08-27.
  78. Web site: Hanau attack reveals 'poison' of racism in Germany, says Merkel. TheGuardian.com. 20 February 2020.
  79. Web site: Most Expensive Terrorist Attacks in the World. 25 April 2017. 24 March 2018.
  80. Web site: The Bishopsgate Bomb: One bomb: pounds 1bn devastation: Man dead after. Independent.co.uk. 25 April 1993. 24 March 2018.
  81. IRA's City of London Bomb Aimed for Financial Impact. Christian Science Monitor. 27 April 1993. 24 March 2018.

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