| Group: | Syrian Turkmen Suriye Türkmenleri |
| Popplace: | See areas of settlement |
| Langs: | Turkish Arabic |
| Rels: | Predominantly Sunni Islam, minority Alevism |
| Related: | Turkish people Iraqi Turkmen Turks in Egypt Lebanese Turkmen Israeli Turkmen Azerbaijanis |
Syrian Turkmen (Arabic: تركمان سوريا|translit=Turkumān Sūriyā; Turkish: Suriye Türkmenleri) are Syrian citizens of Turkish origin who mainly trace their roots to Anatolia (i.e. modern Turkey). Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen make up the third largest ethnic group in the country, after the Arabs and Kurds respectively.
The majority of Syrian Turkmen are the descendants of migrants who arrived in Syria during Ottoman rule (1516–1918);[1] [2] however, there are also many Syrian Turkmen who are the descendants of earlier Turkish settlers that arrived during the Seljuk (1037–1194) and Mamluk (1250–1517) periods. Some estimates indicate that if Arabized Turkmen (those who no longer speak Turkish as their main language) are taken into account, they form the second-largest group in the country.[3] The majority of Syrian Turkmen are Sunni Muslims.
Syrian Turkmen share common genealogical and linguistic ties with the Turkish people in Turkey and Iraqi Turkmen, but do not identify themselves with the Turkmen of Turkmenistan and Central Asia.[4] Most live near the Syrian-Turkish border, in an area that runs from the northwestern governorates of Idlib and Aleppo to the Raqqa Governorate. Others reside in the Turkmen Mountain near Latakia, the city of Homs and its vicinity until Hama, Damascus, and the southwestern governorates of Daraa (bordering Jordan) and Quneitra (bordering Israel).
During the ongoing Syrian Civil War, many Syrian Turkmen have been involved in military actions against both the Syrian Armed Forces and the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), and have looked to the Turkish Armed Forces for support and protection. Many united under an official governing body, the Syrian Turkmen Assembly, and established the military wing of the assembly, the Syrian Turkmen Brigades.[5] However, not all Turkmen support the Turkish occupation of northern Syria, and some have sided with the SDF, forming the Seljuk Brigade.
See also: Mamluk Sultanate, Zengid dynasty, Ottoman Syria and Syria Vilayet. Turkic migration to Syria began in the 11th century during the rule of the Seljuk Empire. However, most Turkmen settled in the region after the Ottoman sultan Selim I conquered Syria in 1516.[6] The Ottoman administration encouraged Turcoman families from Anatolia to establish villages throughout the rural hinterlands of several cities in Ottoman Syria (and later the Syria Vilayet). Migration from Anatolia to Syria was continuous for over 400 years of Ottoman rule, until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1918; nonetheless, Syrian Turkmen community continued to reside in the region during the French Mandate and the formation of Syrian Republics.
Syrian Turkmen have had a presence in Syria since the 11th century.[7] The first recorded entry of free Turkmen troops into Syria was in 1064 when the Turkmen prince Ibn Khan and 1,000 of his archers entered Aleppo.[8] [9] He came at the request of the Arab Mirdasid emir Atiyya ibn Salih to assist him against his own Banu Kilab tribesmen who backed a rival Mirdasid emir, Mahmud ibn Nasr. Turkmen rule in the region began with the Seljuk conquests in the Middle East. The Seljuk Turks opened the way for mass migration of Turkish nomads once they entered northern Syria in 1071, and took Damascus in 1078 and Aleppo in 1086.[10] By the 12tn century the Turkic Zengid dynasty (a vassal of the Seljuk Empire) continued to settle Turkmes in the wilayah of Aleppo to confront attacks from the Crusaders. In return for their military service, the Turkic rulers distributed fiefs in the area to the Turkmen.
In 1260, the Mamluk Sultanate – ruled by a line of Turkish and Circassian sultans – entered Syria in response to the Mongol invasions. Whilst Cairo remained the seat of the Mamluk Sultanate, Damascus became their second capital.[11] Hence, by the thirteenth century, the Turkmen formed a part of the armies of Damascus and Aleppo, and permanently settled in these regions. After the Bahri sultan of the Mamluks, Baibars, destroyed Qara he settled Turkmen in the town in 1265. Two years later, he settled more Turkmen in the Syrian coast to protect the region. The Turkmen were called on to assist in the capture of Margat by the Muslim commander of the Krak des Chevaliers in 1280.[12] The late Mamluk-era writer Ahmad al-Qalqashandi noted that Turkmen formed contingents in the regular armies of greater Syria. By the 15th century, the Muslim writer Khalil az-Zahiri recorded 180,000 Turkmen soldiers and 20,000 Kurdish soldiers in Syria. The Turkmen mainly lived in the provinces of Aleppo and were settled in suburbs such as al-Hadir al-Sulaymani; they also live near the coast and the Jawlan (i.e. Golan Heights).
See also: Ottoman Syria and Syria Vilayet.
Mamluk rule of Syria ended once the Ottoman Sultan Selim I conquered the region in 1516–17.[13] Thereafter, the Ottoman administration encouraged Turkish nomads from Anatolia to settle in strategic areas of the region. By the sixteenth century the Ottomans continued to settle Turkmen in the rural areas around Homs and Hama to keep the Bedouin in check and serve as mütesellim.[14]
Turkish migration from Anatolia to Ottoman Syria was continuous for almost 400 years, until Ottoman rule ended in 1918. The Turkish settlement throughout the rural hinterlands of several Syrian cities was a state-organized population transfer which was used to counter the demographic weight and influence of other ethnic groups in the region. Furthermore, the Turkmen served as the local gendarmes to help assert Ottoman authority.
By the late nineteenth century, many Turkish refugees who lost their lands to Russia in the European regions of the Ottoman Empire (particularly in the Balkans) settled in Ottoman Syria between 1878 and 1906 and were provided with new lands by the Ottoman state. According to Dawn Chatty, these Turkmen settlers (alongside Circassian and Chechen refugees) became loyal subjects to the sultan and were "driven to succeed in agriculture and ready to defend themselves against any Bedouin claims to the land on which they had built their villages".
According to the French geographer Vital Cuinet (1833–96), the Ottoman Turks (excluding Turkmen nomads) formed the second largest ethnic group, after the Syrian Arabs, in the Aleppo Sanjak. In his best known work La Turquie d'Asie, géographie administrative: statistique, descriptive et raisonnée de chaque province de l'Asie Mineure he stated that the demographic structure of the Sanjak was as follows:
| Ethnic and religious groups | Estimated population in the Aleppo Sanjak (ca.1890-95)[15] | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Syrian Arab | 300,541 | 38.41% |
| Ottoman Turk | 159,787 | 20.43% |
| Kurdish and Turkmen nomads | 103,744 | 13.26% |
| Greek Catholic | 23,315 | 2.98% |
| Syrian Catholic | 20,913 | 2.67% |
| Syrian Jacobite | 20,594 | 2.63% |
| Jew | 19,633 | 2.51% |
| Greek Orthodox | 18,665 | 2.39% |
| Armenian Apostolic | 17,999 | 2.30% |
| Chaldean Catholic | 17,027 | 2.18% |
| Armenian Catholic | 15,563 | 1.96% |
| Chaldean non-Uniate | 15,300 | 1.96% |
| Protestant | 9,033 | 1.15% |
| Circassian | 9,000 | 1.15% |
| Other Muslims (Fellah, Ansarieh, Tahtaji, Nusairi) | 26,713 | 3.41% |
| Other Catholic (Latin and Maronite) | 4,447 | 0.57% |
| Total | 782,274 | 100% |
See also: French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon.
In 1921, the Treaty of Ankara established Alexandretta (present-day Hatay) under an autonomous regime under French Mandate of Syria. The Turks were initially satisfied with this agreement, because Article 7 declared that "The Turkish inhabitants of this district shall enjoy every facility for their cultural development. The Turkish language shall have official recognition." Moreover, Article 9 stated that the tomb of Suleyman Shah, grandfather of the first Ottoman ruler Osman I, "shall remain, with its appurtenances, the property of Turkey."
| Population of Hatay State in 1936 according to the French census[16] | ||
| Ethnic group | Inhabitants | % |
|---|---|---|
| 85,800 | 39% | |
| 61,600 | 28% | |
| 24,200 | 11% | |
| Sunni Arabs | 22,000 | 10% |
| 17,600 | 8% | |
| 8,800 | 4% | |
| Total | 220,000 | 100% |
After the Sanjak of Alexandretta became the province of Hatay in the Republic of Turkey, in 1939, some Turkish families immigrated into the new borders of Syria, settling in the provinces of Aleppo and Damascus. Hence, new "Turkish streets" began to emerge, such as in the al-Salihia district in Damascus. Family unifications of Turkmen families living on both sides of the Syrian-Turkish border continued for more than 70 years until the outbreak of the Syrian revolution.
By 1950, Latakia showed great economic potential as the largest port city in Syria, and many Syrian Turkmen living in rural villages joined the Turkmen community already established there. Consequently, there is now a total of 265 Turkish villages in and around Latakia center.
In addition to urban migrations, under the name of "land reform", lands owned by the Turkmen were nationalized and Arabs were resettled in areas near the Turkish border. Arabization policies also saw the names of Turkish villages renamed with Arabic names. Thus, a mass exodus of Syrian Turkmen migration to Turkey took place between 1945 and 1953, many of which settled in Kirikhan, Alexandretta and Adana, in southern Turkey.
The cultural and political rights of the Turkish-speaking minority remaining in Syrian territories was not guaranteed under any legal constitution. Those living in large groups managed to protect their cultural identity, however, Turkmen living in smaller groups were significantly Arabized. In any case, the minority had no rights to open Turkish schools or associations.
By the late 20th century, Dr. Larry Clark stated there was "more than 200,000" Turkmen in Syria whilst the stated that estimates ranged between 800,000 and 1 million.[20] Numerous academics placed the Turkish-speaking Sunni Muslim population (i.e. not including Arabized or Alevi/Shia Turkmen) at approximately 3% of Syria's population, including Professor Daniel Pipes[21] Professor Itamar Rabinovich,[22] Professor Moshe Ma'oz,[23] Dr. Nikolaos van Dam,[24] Dr Henry Munson,[25] Professor Alasdair Drysdale and Professor Raymond Hinnebusch.[26]
Since the beginning of the Syrian civil war in 2011, large numbers of Syrian Turkmen have been displaced from their homes and many have been killed due to attacks by President Bashar al-Assad's government, as well as the terrorist attacks carried out by "Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant" (ISIL). Whilst Turkmen villages in Hama, Homs, and Latakia have been destroyed by the Syrian government, Turkmen villages in Aleppo were occupied by ISIL.[27] Syrian Turkmen, with the support of the Republic of Turkey, have taken up arms against the Syrian government. Several Syrian Turkmen parties united under the Syrian Turkmen Assembly, which is affiliated with the National Coalition opposition group. A Second Coastal Division was formed in 2015 and along with another extensive Turkmen militia group Sultan Murad Division, the Turkmen brigades are closely affiliated with the Free Syrian Army (FSA). Another Syrian Turkmen unit – the Seljuk Brigade and the Manbij Turkmen Brigade – have sided with the Kurdish-led People's Protection Units (YPG) and joined the US-backed Kurdish-led opposition coalition called the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF).
Since the beginning of the Syrian civil war many Syrian refugees (including Syrian Turkmen) have sought asylum in Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon and northern Iraq,[28] as well as several Western European countries[29] and Australia.[30] Moreover, many Syrian Turkmen have also been internally displaced from their homes, forcing them to settle in other parts of Syria.In 2012 the UN Refugee Agency had stated that Syrian Turkmen formed a significant number of the first wave of refugees who entered Turkey.[31]
An article published by Reuters in 2015, reporting the Russian raids hitting Syrian Turkmen areas (after a Russian plane was shot down on the Turkey-Syria border), said that "Officials estimate 300,000 Turkmen used to live in northern Latakia" before the Russians "heavily targeted ethnic Turkmen areas."[32] Al Jazeera English has also reported that the "Russian escalation of attacks on Turkmen areas" displaced "300,000 Turkmen from northern Latakia alone."[33]
The Syrian Government of president Bashar al-Assad, backed by Russia since 2015, have targeted several areas populated by Syrian Turkmen, as they were largely involved in anti-government attacks. On 2 February 2016, at least seven women and children were killed by Russian air strikes in a Syrian Turkmen village in the northern countryside of Homs.[34] In the same month Russian warplanes had staged 600 strikes on Syrian Turkmen villages, displacing approximately 10,000 people.[35]
There have also been reports that there had been forced displacement of Arabs, Syrian Turkmen and Kurdish civilians at the hands of the YPG from their homes in areas in the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria.[36] [37] In June 2015 there was concern expressed by the UN Human Rights Council regarding displacement of Syrian Turkmen from their homes in villages south of Hasakah and Tal Abyad during fighting with ISIL.[38] Approximately 200 Syrian Turkmen refugees fled to Urfa, in southern Turkey, while 700 more fled to the eastern areas of Tal Abyad, once the YPG seized the town of Tell Hammam al-Turkman from ISIL, and there were claims that the YPG had accused the locals of collaborating with ISIL.[39]
There are no reliable estimates on the total number of ethnic minorities living in Syria because official censuses have only asked citizens about their religion, therefore, Syrian citizens have not been allowed to declare their ethnic origin or mother tongue.[40] Dr Abdelwahed Mekki-Berrada, et al., in a report published by the UNHCR, points out that the majority of Syrians are considered "Arab", however, this is a term based on spoken language (Arabic) not ethnic affiliation. Consequently, this has created difficulties in estimating the total Syrian Turkmen population (i.e. including the Turkish-speaking and the Arabized Turkmen).
According to Professor Taef El-Azhari, the Syrian Turkmen have "always been the forgotten minority in the area despite their large population".[41] Dr Abdelwahed Mekki-Berrada, et al., as well as Professor Pierre Beckouche, Professor John Shoup, Professor Pierre Piccinin, and Dr Peter Behnstedt,[42] have all placed the Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen as the third largest ethnic group in the country (after Arabs and Kurds respectively). Yet, a report published by the Arab Reform Initiative suggests that they may form the second largest ethnic group if Arabized Turkmen are also taken into account:
Assistant Professor Sebastian Maisel, focusing on the Yezidis, claimed that Syrian Turkmen numbered 250,000 (or approx 1% of the population). However, Professor Pierre Beckouche stated that Sunni Muslim Turkmen alone formed 4% of the country's population before 2011 (i.e. approximately 1 million).[43] Professor John Shoup has said that in 2018 the Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen formed around 4-5% of the population. Professor Taef El-Azhari, Dr. Sebastien Peyrouse, and Dr. Paul Antonopoulos have all stated that there is around 1 million Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen. In addition, Dr. Eldad J. Pardo and Maya Jacobi have cited an estimate of 750,000 to 1.5 million. Professor David Aikman has said that there is "about 1.7 million Turks in Syria". Dr. Jonathan Spyer, as well as a report published in cooperation between the Norwegian Church Aid and the World Council of Churches (compiled by various academics), stated that the Turkmen number anywhere from 500,000 to 3 million.[44] Professor Pierre Piccinin claims that whilst 1.5 million Syrian Turkmen are Turkish-speaking, the total population of the minority is between 3.5 and 6 million (or 15% to 20% of the population), including those who have adopted Arabic as their mother tongue.
See also: Refugees of the Syrian Civil War and Turkish diaspora.
In December 2016 the Turkish Foreign Ministry Undersecretary Ümit Yalçın stated that Turkey opened its borders to 500,000 Syrian Turkmen.[45] Most Syrian Turkmen settled in Istanbul, Gaziantep, Osmaniye, Hatay, Izmir, Malatya, and Konya.
In 2020 the Voice of America reported that 1,000,000 Syrian Turkmen (including descendants) who are living in Turkey are requesting to become Turkish citizens.[46]
In October 2015, the Syrian independent newspaper Zaman Al Wasl reported that 120,000 to 150,000 Syrian Turkmen refugees arrived in Lebanon, and hence they now outnumber the Turkish minority of Lebanon.[47] By 2018 the number of Syrian Turkmen in Lebanon had increased to approximately 200,000.[48]
A substantial number of Syrian Turkmen refugees also fled to Jordan.
Outside the Middle East, Syrian Turkmen refugees have mainly fled to Western Europe (particularly Germany), but some have also been given refuge in countries as far as Australia.
Established in Germany, the "Suriye Türkmen Kültür ve Yardımlaşma Derneği – Avrupa",or "STKYDA", ("Syrian Turkmen Culture and Solidarity Association – Europe") was the first Syrian Turkmen association to be launched in Europe. It was established in order to help the growing Syrian Turkmen community which arrived in the country since the European migrant crisis which started in 2014 and saw its peak in 2015. The association includes Syrian Turkmen youth activists originating from all Syrian cities and who are now living across Western European cities.
Most Syrian Turkmen live in the area around the northern Euphrates, near the Syrian-Turkish border; however, they are also scattered throughout several governorates, stretching towards central Syria and the southern region near the Golan Heights. In particular, the Turkmen are concentrated in the urban centers and countryside of six governorates of Syria: in the Aleppo Governorate, the Damascus Governorate, the Homs Governorate, the Hama Governorate, the Latakia Governorate and the Quneitra Governorate.[49] There are also smaller Turkmen communities living in the Daraa Governorate; as well as in Tartous, Raqqa, and Idlib governorates.
In the Aleppo governorate, the main locales in which the Turkmen live include the city of Aleppo (with Bustan al-Basha, Haydariyah, Hllok, Sheikh Hizir, Sheikh Feriz, Saladdin, Owaijah being neighborhoods with ethnic Turkmen populations) and the countryside in the northern part of the governorate. They also live in the villages next to the cities of Azaz, Al-Bab, and Jarabulus.[50] [51] Al-Rai is also a Turkmen-dominated town. There are 16 Turkmen-dominated villages south of Mount Simeon, 17 Turkmen villages in the district of Azaz, 29 villages to the east of that region, 3 villages connected to Aleppo, 69 villages around Al-Rai, 26 villages in the vicinity of Jarabulus, and 23 villages south of Sajur River.[52]
In the Latakia governorate the Turkmen live mostly in the Turkmen Mountains (Jabal al-Turkman), Al-Badrusiyah, Umm al-Tuyour, and in various villages near the Syrian-Turkish border. There is also a number of Turkmen districts, including Bayırbucak and Jimmel Harresi where there are many Turkmen villages.
In the Damascus governorate the Turkmen live in the city of Damascus, and Harret Al Turkman is a Turkmen district where Turkish is predominantly spoken. In the Homs governorate the Turkmen mostly live in the city of Homs and the surrounding villages, such as Kara Avshar, Inallu, and Kapushak. They also live in Gharnatah, Al-Krad, Burj Qa'i, al-Sam'lil, and in villages in the Houla plain. In the Hama governorate the Turkmen live in the city of Hama and are also scattered in numerous villages around the district. For example, Baba Amir Haras is a prominent Turkmen district. There are also Turkmen living in Aqrab and Talaf.[53] In the Quneitra governorate the Turkmen are scattered in numerous villages in the districts of Quneitra. They predominantly reside in the villages of Dababiye, Rezaniye, Sindiyane, Aynul Kara, Aynul Simsim, Ulayka, Aynul Alak, Ahmediye, Kafer Nafah, Mugir, Hafir, Hüseyniye, and Ayn Ayse.
See also: Turkish language and Languages of Syria. According to The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, the Turkish language is the third most widely used language in Syria (after Arabic and Kurdish). It is spoken by the Turkmen minority mostly in villages east of the Euphrates, north of Aleppo, and on the northern coast of the country, along the Syrian-Turkish border.[54] [55] [56] In addition, there are Turkish language islands in the Qalamun area and the Homs area. Moreover, Syrian Arabic dialects have also borrowed many loanwords from Turkish. Mustafa Khalifa claims that, Turkmen are divided into two groups: Rural Turkish-speaking Turkmen, constituting 30% of Syrian Turkmen, and Urban Arabic-speaking Turkmen.
Various dialects of Turkish are spoken throughout Syria: in Aleppo they speak a Kilis and Antep dialect; in Tell Abyad and Raqqa they speak an Urfa dialect; and in Bayırbucak they speak a Hatay/Yayladağı dialect of the Turkish language. Some Syrian Turkmen living far from the Turkish border, such as in Homs, have managed to preserve their national identity but are more competent in speaking the Arabic language. In Damascus Syrian Turkmen speak the Turkish language of a Yörük dialect.
In 2018 Dr. Eldad J. Pardo and Maya Jacobi reported that they did not identify any Turkish (nor Kurdish or Aramaic) teaching, either as a first or second language, in the Syrian national curriculum.
See also: Islam in Syria and Religion in Syria.
The majority of Syrian Turkmen are Sunni Muslims,[57] but there is also a small minority of Turkmen who are Shia Muslims (particularly Alevis and Bektashis). Ali Öztürkmen claims that the Turkmen community is 99% Sunni whilst the remainder (1%) practice Shia Islam.
There are also some Syrian "Nawar people" (a derogatory term for people who live a mobile lifestyle – often described as "gypsies"[58]) who speak Turkish, some of whom self-identify as Turkmen; those practicing Islam belong to the Sunni, Shiite, and Alevi/Bektashi religious groups. There are also some who practice Christianity.
From the French mandate era to the Assad regime, the Turkish culture and language have perished for a section of the Syrian Turkmen community. Many Syrian Turkmen have become Arabized and indistinguishable from the Arabs in areas where they form a minority. Consequently, Arabization is mainly an exception in areas where the Syrian Turkmen live in areas where they form a significant population, where they have continued to maintain their Turkish identity and language despite discriminative state policies.
Under the rule of Hafez al-Assad, there has been a ban on Syrian Turkmen communities from publishing works in Turkish.
Syrian Turkmen occupied a low rung on the societal ladder, as reported by Al Bawaba, it was stated that Assad always sought to benefit his politically dominant Alawite religious minority. The report quoted Bayırbucak Turkmen as highlighting, "They would take Alawites first no matter what, even if they had degrees, Turkmen couldn't find jobs".[59]
Several Turkish families, such as the al-Atassi's (Atasi's), Bey Kanj Pasha Zadeh (Genç Yussef Pasha 1807–1811), Al-Azm, Qawuqji's, Quwwatli's (Kuvvetli's) and Shishakli's (Çiçekçi's), continued to rule Syria as Prime Ministers or Presidents.[60] However, by the 1960s the pan-Arab Baathist movement of the Al-Assad family sidelined non-Arabs from politics.