Supervolcano Explained

A supervolcano is a volcano that has had an eruption with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8,^[1] the largest recorded value on the index. This means the volume of deposits for such an eruption is greater than 1000abbr=offNaNabbr=off.^[2]

Supervolcanoes occur when magma in the mantle rises into the crust but is unable to break through it. Pressure builds in a large and growing magma pool until the crust is unable to contain the pressure and ruptures. This can occur at hotspots (for example, Yellowstone Caldera) or at subduction zones (for example, Toba).^{[3] [4]}

Large-volume supervolcanic eruptions are also often associated with large igneous provinces, which can cover huge areas with lava and volcanic ash. These can cause long-lasting climate change (such as the triggering of a small ice age) and threaten species with extinction. The Oruanui eruption of New Zealand's Taupō Volcano (about 25,600 years ago) was the world's most recent VEI-8 eruption.^[5]

Terminology

The term "supervolcano" was first used in a volcanic context in 1949.^{[6] [7]} Its origins lie in an early 20th-century scientific debate about the geological history and features of the Three Sisters volcanic region of Oregon in the United States. In 1925, Edwin T. Hodge suggested that a very large volcano, which he named Mount Multnomah, had existed in that region.^[8] He believed that several peaks in the Three Sisters area were remnants of Mount Multnomah after it had been largely destroyed by violent volcanic explosions, similarly to Mount Mazama.^[9] In his 1948 book The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon, volcanologist Howel Williams ignored the possible existence of Mount Multnomah, but in 1949 another volcanologist, F. M. Byers Jr., reviewed the book, and in the review, Byers refers to Mount Multnomah as a "supervolcano".^{[10] [11]}

More than fifty years after Byers' review was published, the term supervolcano was popularised by the BBC popular science television program Horizon in 2000, referring to eruptions that produce extremely large amounts of ejecta.^{[12] [13]}

The term megacaldera is sometimes used for caldera supervolcanoes, such as the Blake River Megacaldera Complex in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario and Quebec, Canada.^[14]

Though there is no well-defined minimum explosive size for a "supervolcano", there are at least two types of volcanic eruptions that have been identified as supervolcanoes: large igneous provinces and massive eruptions.^[15]

Large igneous provinces

See main article: Large igneous province.

Large igneous provinces, such as Iceland, the Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and the Ontong Java Plateau, are extensive regions of basalts on a continental scale resulting from flood basalt eruptions. When created, these regions often occupy several thousand square kilometres and have volumes on the order of millions of cubic kilometers. In most cases, the lavas are normally laid down over several million years. They release large amounts of gases.

The Réunion hotspot produced the Deccan Traps about 66 million years ago, coincident with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The scientific consensus is that an asteroid impact was the cause of the extinction event, but the volcanic activity may have caused environmental stresses on extant species up to the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary.^[16] Additionally, the largest flood basalt event (the Siberian Traps) occurred around 250 million years ago and was coincident with the largest mass extinction in history, the Permian–Triassic extinction event, although it is unknown whether it was solely responsible for the extinction event.

Such outpourings are not explosive, though lava fountains may occur. Many volcanologists consider Iceland to be a large igneous province that is currently being formed. The last major outpouring occurred in 1783–84 from the Laki fissure, which is approximately 40km (30miles) long. An estimated 14km3 of basaltic lava was poured out during the eruption (VEI 4).

The Ontong Java Plateau has an area of about 2000000km2, and the province was at least 50% larger before the Manihiki and Hikurangi Plateaus broke away.

Massive explosive eruptions

See also: List of largest volcanic eruptions.

Volcanic eruptions are classified using the volcanic explosivity index. It is a logarithmic scale, and an increase of one in VEI number is equivalent to a tenfold increase in volume of erupted material. VEI 7 or VEI 8 eruptions are so powerful that they often form circular calderas rather than cones because the downward withdrawal of magma causes the overlying rock mass to collapse into the empty magma chamber beneath it.

Known super eruptions

Based on incomplete statistics, at least 60 VEI 8 eruptions have been identified.^{[15] [17]}

Notes!Years ago (approx.)!Ejecta bulk volume (approx.)!class=unsortable

Reference
Youngest Toba eruption	Toba Caldera, North Sumatra	Sumatra, Indonesia	Produced 439–631 million tons of sulfuric acid	75,000		^[18] ^[19] ^[20] ^[21] ^[22] ^[23] ^[24]
Flat Landing Brook Formation	Tetagouche Group	New Brunswick, Canada	Possibly the largest known supereruption. Existence as a single eruption is controversial, and it could have been a multiple 2,000+ km^3 event that spanned less than a million years	466,000,000		^[25] ^[26]
Wah Wah Springs Caldera	Indian Peak–Caliente Caldera Complex	Utah, United States	The largest of the Indian Peak-Caliente Caldera Complex eruptions, preserved as the Wah Wah Springs Tuff; includes pyroclastic flows more than 500m (1,600feet) thick	30,600,000		^[27] ^[28]
La Garita Caldera	San Juan volcanic field	Colorado, United States	Fish Canyon eruption	27,800,000	5,000 km^3	^[29] ^[30]
Grey's Landing Supereruption	Yellowstone hotspot	United States	Deposited the Grey's Landing Ignimbrite	8,720,000	2,800 km^3	^[31]
La Pacana	Andes Central Volcanic Zone	Chile	Responsible for the Antana Ignimbrite	4,000,000	2,500 km^3	^[32]
Huckleberry Ridge eruption	Yellowstone hotspot	Idaho, United States	Huckleberry Ridge Tuff; consisted of three distinct eruptions separated by years to decades	2,100,000		^[33]
Whakamaru Caldera	Taupō Volcanic Zone	North Island, New Zealand	Whakamaru Ignimbrite/Mount Curl Tephra	340,000	2,000 km^3	^[34]
Heise Volcanic Field	Yellowstone hotspot	Idaho, United States	Kilgore Tuff	4,500,000	1,800 km^3	^[35]
McMullen Supereruption	Yellowstone hotspot	Southern Idaho, United States	McMullen Ignimbrite	8,990,000	1,700 km^3
Heise Volcanic Field	Yellowstone hotspot	Idaho, United States	Blacktail Tuff	6,000,000	1,500 km^3
Cerro Guacha	Altiplano–Puna volcanic complex	Sur Lípez, Bolivia	Guacha ignimbrite, two smaller eruptions identified	5,700,000	1,300 km^3	^[36]
Mangakino Caldera	Taupō Volcanic Zone	North Island, New Zealand	Kidnappers eruption	1,080,000	1,200 km^3	^[37]
Oruanui eruption	Taupō Volcanic Zone	North Island, New Zealand	Taupō Volcano (Lake Taupō)	26,500	1,170 km^3	^[38]
Galán	Andes Central Volcanic Zone	Catamarca, Argentina	Consisted of three distinct eruptions, separated by 30-40 thousand years	2,500,000	1,050 km^3	^[39]
Lava Creek eruption	Yellowstone hotspot	Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, United States	Lava Creek Tuff consisted of two distinct eruptions separated by years	640,000	1,000 km^3	^[40]

Media portrayal

• Nova featured an episode "Mystery of the Megavolcano" in September 2006 examining such eruptions in the last 100,000 years.^[41]
• Supervolcano is the title of a British-Canadian television disaster film, first released in 2005. It tells a fictional story of a supereruption at Yellowstone.
• In the 2009 disaster film 2012, a supereruption of Yellowstone is one of the events that contributes to a global cataclysm.

Further reading

• Mason, Ben G. . Pyle, David M. . Oppenheimer, Clive. 2004. The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth . Bulletin of Volcanology . 66 . 8 . 735–748 . 10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9 . 2004BVol...66..735M. 129680497 .
• Book: Oppenheimer, C.. Eruptions that shook the world. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-64112-8. 2011.
• 10.5194/acp-6-35-2006 . Timmreck . C.. Graf, H.-F. . 2006 . The initial dispersal and radiative forcing of a Northern Hemisphere mid-latitude super volcano: a model study . Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics . 6 . 1 . 35–49. 2006ACP.....6...35T . free . 11858/00-001M-0000-0011-FD24-C . free .

External links

• Overview and Transcript of the original BBC program
• Yellowstone Supervolcano and Map of Supervolcanoes Around The World
• USGS Fact Sheet – Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions – What's in Yellowstone's Future?
• Scientific American's The Secrets of Supervolcanoes
• Supervolcano eruption mystery solved, BBC Science, 6 January 2014

Notes and References

1. de Silva, Shanaka. Arc magmatism, calderas, and supervolcanos. Geology. 2008. 36. 8 . 671 . 10.1130/focus082008.1 . 2008Geo....36..671D. free.
2. Web site: Questions About Supervolcanoes . USGS Yellowstone Volcano Observatory . Volcanic Hazards Program . 2015-08-21 . 2017-08-22 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170703184836/https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/volcanoes/yellowstone/yellowstone_sub_page_49.html . 3 July 2017 .
3. Wotzlaw. Jörn-Frederik. Bindeman. Ilya N.. Watts. Kathryn E.. Schmitt. Axel K.. Caricchi. Luca. Schaltegger. Urs. September 2014. Linking rapid magma reservoir assembly and eruption trigger mechanisms at evolved Yellowstone-type supervolcanoes. Geology. 42. 9. 807–810. 10.1130/g35979.1. 2014Geo....42..807W. 1943-2682.
4. Budd. David A.. Troll. Valentin R.. Deegan. Frances M.. Jolis. Ester M.. Smith. Victoria C.. Whitehouse. Martin J.. Harris. Chris. Freda. Carmela. Hilton. David R.. Halldórsson. Sæmundur A.. Bindeman. Ilya N.. 2017-01-25. Magma reservoir dynamics at Toba caldera, Indonesia, recorded by oxygen isotope zoning in quartz. Scientific Reports. en. 7. 1. 40624. 10.1038/srep40624. 2045-2322. 5264179. 28120860. 2017NatSR...740624B.
5. 10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00239-6. The 26.5ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: An introduction and overview. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 112. 1–4. 133–174. 2001. Wilson . C. J. N. . Colin J. N. Wilson. 2001JVGR..112..133W.
6. http://oed.com/view/Entry/311217 supervolcano, n.
7. Byers Jr. . F. M. . May 1949 . Review of The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon, by H. Williams . subscription . The Journal of Geology . 57 . 3 . 325 . 10.1086/625620 . 30058772 . JSTOR.
8. Subsequent research proved that each peak of the Three Sisters was formed independently, and that Mount Multnomah never existed.
9. Harris, Stephen (1988). Fire Mountains of the West: The Cascade and Mono Lake Volcanoes. Missoula, Mountain Press.
10. http://oed.com/view/Entry/311217 supervolcano, n.
11. Byers Jr. . F. M. . May 1949 . Review of The Ancient Volcanoes of Oregon, by H. Williams . subscription . The Journal of Geology . 57 . 3 . 325 . 10.1086/625620 . 30058772 . JSTOR.
12. Web site: Supervolcanoes . 3 February 2000 . bbc.co.uk . BBC . 30 November 2023.
13. http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/Yellowstone/description_yellowstone.html USGS Cascades Volcano Observatory
14. An Archean megacaldera complex: The Blake River Group, Abitibi greenstone belt . Pearson. V.. Daigneault. R. . January 2009. Precambrian Research . 168 . 1–2 . 66–82 . 10.1016/j.precamres.2008.03.009. 2009PreR..168...66P .
15. The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth . Bryan . S.E. . 2010 . Earth-Science Reviews . 102 . 3–4 . 207–229 . 10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001 . 2010ESRv..102..207B .
16. Deccan volcanism, the Chicxulub impact, and the end-Cretaceous mass extinction: Coincidence? Cause and effect?. Keller. G. 2014. Geological Society of America Special Papers. 505. 57–89. 10.1130/2014.2505(03). 9780813725055.
17. The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth. BG. Mason. 2004. Bull Volcanol. 66. 8. 735–748. 10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. 2004BVol...66..735M. 129680497.
18. Science. 10.1126/science.1141564 . 2007. Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption. Petraglia. M.. Korisettar. R.. Boivin. N.. Clarkson. C.. Ditchfield. P.. Jones. S.. Koshy. J.. Lahr. M. M.. Oppenheimer. C.. Pyle . D. . Roberts . R. . Schwenninger . J.-L. . Arnold . L. . White . K. . 317. 5834. 114–116. 17615356. 2007Sci...317..114P . 20380351 . 8 .
19. Knight, M.D., Walker, G.P.L., Ellwood, B.B., and Diehl, J.F.. 1986. Stratigraphy, paleomagnetism, and magnetic fabric of the Toba Tuffs: Constraints on their sources and eruptive styles. Journal of Geophysical Research. 91. B10. 10355–10382. 10.1029/JB091iB10p10355. 1986JGR....9110355K.
20. Ninkovich, D., Sparks, R.S.J., and Ledbetter, M.T.. 1978. The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, Sumatra: An example of using deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool. 1978BVol...41..286N. 10.1007/BF02597228. Bulletin Volcanologique. 41. 286–298. 3. 128626019.
21. Rose, W.I.. Chesner, C.A.. amp. 1987. Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption, 75 ka. Geology. 15. 913–917. 10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2. 10. 0091-7613. 1987Geo....15..913R. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20100617032134/http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/RoseTobaFallGeology.pdf. 17 June 2010.
22. Williams, M.A.J. . Royce, K. . amp . 1982. 10.1016/0031-0182(82)90001-3. Quaternary geology of the middle son valley, North Central India: Implications for prehistoric archaeology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 38. 3–4. 139 . 1982PPP....38..139W .
23. 10.3389/feart.2014.00016 . Antonio Costa . Victoria C. Smith . Giovanni Macedonio . Naomi E. Matthews . 2014 . The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super-eruption . Frontiers in Earth Science . 2 . 16 . 2014FrEaS...2...16C . free .
24. Lin . Jiamei . Abbott . Peter M. . Sigl . Michael . Steffensen . Jørgen P. . Mulvaney . Robert . Severi . Mirko . Svensson . Anders . 2023 . Bipolar ice-core records constrain possible dates and global radiative forcing following the ~74 ka Toba eruption . Quaternary Science Reviews . en . 312 . 108162 . 10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108162. 2023QSRv..31208162L . free .
25. Web site: Lexique du substrat rocheux. dnr-mrn.gnb.ca. 2019-12-22.
26. Web site: A mid-Darriwilian super volcano in northern New Brunswick, rapid climate change and the start of the great Ordovician biodiversification event . 118–119 . 2023-11-11 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191212184601/http://www.mineralogicalassociation.ca/doc/StJohns2012_GAC-MAC_Abstracts.pdf . 2019-12-12 . live .
27. Tingey. David G. . Hart. Garret L. . Gromme . Sherman . Deino . Alan L. . Christiansen . Eric H. . Best. Myron G. . 2013-08-01. The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions . Geosphere . en . 9. 4. 864–950 . 10.1130/GES00902.1 . 2013Geosp...9..864B . free.
28. Web site: King . Hobart M. . Volcanic Explosivity Index: Measuring the size of an eruption . Geology.com.
29. Web site: La Garita Caldera . Ort . Michael . . 22 September 1997 . 5 August 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110519165154/http://staff.aist.go.jp/s-takarada/CEV/newsletter/lagarita.html . 19 May 2011 .
30. Lipman . Peter W. . Geologic Map of the Central San Juan Caldera Cluster, Southwestern Colorado . USGS Investigations Series I-2799 . 2007-11-02 . 6 August 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100831221119/http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2799/ . 31 August 2010 . live .
31. Knott . Thomas . Branney . M. . Reichow . Marc . Finn . David . Tapster . Simon . Coe . Robert . Discovery of two new super-eruptions from the Yellowstone hotspot track (USA): Is the Yellowstone hotspot waning? . Geology . June 2020 . 48 . 9 . 934–938 . 10.1130/G47384.1 . 2020Geo....48..934K . 21 June 2022. free .
32. Lindsay. J. M.. 2001-03-01. Magmatic Evolution of the La Pacana Caldera System, Central Andes, Chile: Compositional Variation of Two Cogenetic, Large-Volume Felsic Ignimbrites. Journal of Petrology. 42. 3. 459–486. 10.1093/petrology/42.3.459. 0022-3530. 2001JPet...42..459L. free.
33. Web site: What is a supervolcano? What is a supereruption? . USGS.
34. Froggatt . P. C. . Nelson, C. S. . Carter, L. . Griggs, G. . Black, K. P. . 13 February 1986. An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand . Nature . 319 . 578–582 . 10.1038/319578a0 . The minimum total volume of tephra is 1,200 km³ but probably nearer 2,000 km³, ... . 6054. 1986Natur.319..578F . 4332421 .
35. 10.1130/B25519.1 . Lisa A. Morgan . William C. McIntosh . 53648675 . amp . Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA. GSA Bulletin. 2005. 117. 3–4. 288–306. 2005GSAB..117..288M .
36. Salisbury. M. J.. Jicha. B. R.. de Silva. S. L.. Singer. B. S.. Jimenez. N. C.. Ort. M. H.. 40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 21 December 2010. 123. 5–6. 821–840. 10.1130/B30280.1. 2011GSAB..123..821S. dmy-all.
37. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AGUFM.V31C2797C Rejuvenation and Repeated Eruption of a 1.0 Ma Supervolcanic System at Mangakino Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand
38. Wilson. C. J. N. 2001-12-01. The 26.5ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: an introduction and overview. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. en. 112. 1. 133–174. 10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00239-6. 2001JVGR..112..133W. 0377-0273.
39. Kay. Suzanne Mahlburg. Coira. Beatriz. Wörner. Gerhard. Kay. Robert W.. Singer. Bradley S.. 2011-12-01. Geochemical, isotopic and single crystal 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on the evolution of the Cerro Galán ignimbrites. Bulletin of Volcanology. en. 73. 10. 1487–1511. 10.1007/s00445-010-0410-7. 2011BVol...73.1487K. 1432-0819. free.
40. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm Large Holocene Eruptions
41. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/megavolcano/ "Mystery of the Megavolcano"