Suicide Explained

Suicide
Field:Psychiatry, clinical psychology, clinical social work
Onset:15–30 and 70+ years old
Risks:Depression, bipolar disorder, autism, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders, alcoholism, substance abuse[1]
Prevention:Limiting access to methods of suicide, treating mental disorders and substance misuse, careful media reporting about suicide, improving social and economic conditions
Frequency:12 per 100,000 per year
Deaths:793,000 / 1.5% of deaths (2016)[2]

Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death.[3] Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and cognitive disengagement syndrome), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and substance abuse (including alcoholism and the use of and withdrawal from benzodiazepines) are risk factors.[4] [5] [6]

Some suicides are impulsive acts due to stress (such as from financial or academic difficulties), relationship problems (such as breakups or divorces), or harassment and bullying.[7] [8] Those who have previously attempted suicide are at a higher risk for future attempts. Effective suicide prevention efforts include limiting access to methods of suicide such as firearms, drugs, and poisons; treating mental disorders and substance abuse; careful media reporting about suicide; improving economic conditions;[9] [10] and dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT).[11] Although crisis hotlines are common resources, their effectiveness has not been well studied.[12] [13]

Suicides resulted in 828,000 deaths globally in 2015, an increase from 712,000 deaths in 1990.[14] [15] This makes suicide the 10th leading cause of death worldwide.[4] [16] Approximately 1.5% of all deaths worldwide are by suicide.[17] In a given year, this is roughly 12 per 100,000 people.[16] Rates of suicide are generally higher among men than women, ranging from 1.5 times higher in the developing world to 3.5 times higher in the developed world. Suicide is generally most common among those over the age of 70; however, in certain countries, those aged between 15 and 30 are at the highest risk.[18] Europe had the highest rates of suicide by region in 2015.[19] There are an estimated 10 to 20 million non-fatal attempted suicides every year.[20] Non-fatal suicide attempts may lead to injury and long-term disabilities. In the Western world, attempts are more common among young people and women.[21] The most commonly adopted method of suicide varies from country to country and is partly related to the availability of effective means.[22]

Views on suicide have been influenced by broad existential themes such as religion, honor, and the meaning of life.[23] [24] The Abrahamic religions traditionally consider suicide as an offense towards God due to belief in the sanctity of life.[25] During the samurai era in Japan, a form of suicide known as seppuku was respected as a means of making up for failure or as a form of protest.[26] Similarly, a ritual fast unto death, known as Vatakkiruttal ('fasting facing north'), was a Tamil ritual suicide in ancient India during the Sangam age.[27] Suicide and attempted suicide, while previously illegal, are no longer so in most Western countries.[28] It remains a criminal offense in some countries.[29] In the 20th and 21st centuries, suicide has been used on rare occasions as a form of protest;or as both a military and terrorist tactic while or after murdering others.[30] Suicide is often seen as a major catastrophe causing significant grief to the deceased's relatives, friends and community members, and it is viewed negatively almost everywhere around the world.[31] [32] [33]

Definitions

See main article: Suicide terminology. Suicide, derived from Latin, is "the act of taking one's own life".[3] [34] Attempted suicide or non-fatal suicidal behavior amounts to self-injury with at least some desire to end one's life that does not result in death.[35] [36] Assisted suicide occurs when one individual helps another bring about their own death indirectly via providing either advice or the means to the end.[37] This is in contrast to euthanasia, where another person takes a more active role in bringing about a person's death.[37]

Suicidal ideation is thoughts of ending one's life but not taking any active efforts to do so.[35] It may or may not involve exact planning or intent. Suicidality is defined as "the risk of suicide, usually indicated by suicidal ideation or intent, especially as evident in the presence of a well-elaborated suicidal plan."[38]

In a murder–suicide (or homicide–suicide), the individual aims at taking the lives of others at the same time. A special case of this is extended suicide, where the murder is motivated by seeing the murdered persons as an extension of their self.[39] Suicide in which the reason is that the person feels that they are not part of society is known as egoistic suicide.[40]

In 2011, in an article calling for changing the language used around suicide entitled "Suicide and language: Why we shouldn't use the 'C' word," the Centre for Suicide Prevention in Canada found that the normal verb in scholarly research and journalism for the act of suicide was commit, and argued for destigmatizing terminology related to suicide.[41] [42] The American Psychological Association lists "committed suicide" as a term to avoid because it "frame[s] suicide as a crime".[43] Some advocacy groups recommend using the terms took his/her own life, died by suicide, or killed him/herself instead of committed suicide.[44] [45] [46] The Associated Press Stylebook recommends avoiding "committed suicide" except in direct quotes from authorities.[47] The Guardian and Observer style guides deprecate the use of "committed",[48] as does CNN.[49] Opponents of commit argue that it implies that suicide is criminal, sinful, or morally wrong.[50]

Pathophysiology

There is no known unifying underlying pathophysiology for suicide;[21] it is believed to result from an interplay of behavioral, socio-economic and psychological factors.[22]

Low levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are both directly associated with suicide[51] and indirectly associated through its role in major depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia and obsessive–compulsive disorder.[52] Post-mortem studies have found reduced levels of BDNF in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, in those with and without psychiatric conditions.[53] Serotonin, a brain neurotransmitter, is believed to be low in those who die by suicide.[54] This is partly based on evidence of increased levels of 5-HT2A receptors found after death.[55] Other evidence includes reduced levels of a breakdown product of serotonin, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, in the cerebral spinal fluid.[56] However, direct evidence is hard to obtain.[55] Epigenetics, the study of changes in genetic expression in response to environmental factors which do not alter the underlying DNA, is also believed to play a role in determining suicide risk.[57]

Risk factors

Factors that affect the risk of suicide include mental disorders, drug misuse, psychological states, cultural, family and social situations, genetics, experiences of trauma or loss, and nihilism.[58] [13] Mental disorders and substance misuse frequently co-exist. Other risk factors include having previously attempted suicide,[21] the ready availability of a means to take one's life, a family history of suicide, or the presence of traumatic brain injury.[59] For example, suicide rates have been found to be greater in households with firearms than those without them.[60]

Socio-economic problems such as unemployment, poverty, homelessness, and discrimination may trigger suicidal thoughts.[61] [62] Suicide might be rarer in societies with high social cohesion and moral objections against suicide. Genetics appears to account for between 38% and 55% of suicidal behaviors.[63] Suicides may also occur as a local cluster of cases.[64]

Most research does not distinguish between risk factors that lead to thinking about suicide and risk factors that lead to suicide attempts.[65] [66] Risks for suicide attempt, rather than just thoughts of suicide, include a high pain tolerance and a reduced fear of death.[67]

Previous attempts

A previous history of suicide attempts is the most accurate predictor of death by suicide. Approximately 20% of suicides have had a previous attempt. Of those who have attempted suicide, 1% die by suicide within a year and more than 5% die by suicide within 10 years.

Mental illness

See also: Brain health and pollution. Mental illness is present at the time of suicide 27% to more than 90% of the time.[68] [21] [69] [70] Of those who have been hospitalized for suicidal behavior, the lifetime risk of suicide is 8.6%.[21] [71] Comparatively, non-suicidal people hospitalized for affective disorders have a 4% lifetime risk of suicide.[71] Half of all people who die by suicide may have major depressive disorder; having this or one of the other mood disorders such as bipolar disorder increases the risk of suicide 20-fold.[72] Other conditions implicated include schizophrenia (14%), personality disorders (8%),[73] [74] obsessive–compulsive disorder,[75] and post-traumatic stress disorder.[21] Those with autism also attempt and consider suicide more frequently.[76]

Others estimate that about half of people who die by suicide could be diagnosed with a personality disorder, with borderline personality disorder being the most common.[77] About 5% of people with schizophrenia die of suicide.[78] Eating disorders are another high risk condition. Around 22% to 50% of people with gender dysphoria have attempted suicide, however this greatly varies by region.[79] [80] [81] [82] [83]

Among approximately 80% of suicides, the individual has seen a physician within the year before their death, including 45% within the prior month.[84] Approximately 25–40% of those who died by suicide had contact with mental health services in the prior year.[68] [85] Antidepressants of the SSRI class appear to increase the frequency of suicide among children and young persons.[86] An unwillingness to get help for mental health problems also increases the risk.[64]

Substance misuse

See also: Substance-induced psychosis. Substance misuse is the second most common risk factor for suicide after major depression and bipolar disorder.[87] Both chronic substance misuse as well as acute intoxication are associated.[88] When combined with personal grief, such as bereavement, the risk is further increased. Substance misuse is also associated with mental health disorders.

Most people are under the influence of sedative-hypnotic drugs (such as alcohol or benzodiazepines) when they die by suicide,[89] with alcoholism present in between 15% and 61% of cases. Use of prescribed benzodiazepines is associated with an increased rate of suicide and attempted suicide. The pro-suicidal effects of benzodiazepines are suspected to be due to a psychiatric disturbance caused by side effects, such as disinhibition, or withdrawal symptoms. Countries that have higher rates of alcohol use and a greater density of bars generally also have higher rates of suicide.[90] About 2.2–3.4% of those who have been treated for alcoholism at some point in their life die by suicide. Alcoholics who attempt suicide are usually male, older, and have tried to take their own lives in the past. Between 3 and 35% of deaths among those who use heroin are due to suicide (approximately fourteenfold greater than those who do not use).[91] In adolescents who misuse alcohol, neurological and psychological dysfunctions may contribute to the increased risk of suicide.[92]

The misuse of cocaine and methamphetamine has a high correlation with suicide.[93] In those who use cocaine, the risk is greatest during the withdrawal phase.[94] Those who used inhalants are also at significant risk with around 20% attempting suicide at some point and more than 65% considering it. Smoking cigarettes is associated with risk of suicide.[95] There is little evidence as to why this association exists; however, it has been hypothesized that those who are predisposed to smoking are also predisposed to suicide, that smoking causes health problems which subsequently make people want to end their life, and that smoking affects brain chemistry causing a propensity for suicide. Cannabis, however, does not appear to independently increase the risk.

Self-harm

Non-suicidal self-harm is common with 18% of people engaging in self-harm over the course of their life.[96] Acts of self-harm are not usually suicide attempts and most who self-harm are not at high risk of suicide.[97] Some who self-harm, however, do still end their life by suicide, and risk for self-harm and suicide may overlap. Individuals who have been identified as self-harming after being admitted to hospital are more likely to die by suicide.[98]

Medical conditions

There is an association between suicidality and physical health problems such as chronic pain,[99] traumatic brain injury,[100] cancer,[101] chronic fatigue syndrome,[102] kidney failure (requiring hemodialysis), HIV, and systemic lupus erythematosus. The diagnosis of cancer approximately doubles the subsequent frequency of suicide. The prevalence of increased suicidality persisted after adjusting for depressive illness and alcohol abuse. Among people with more than one medical condition the frequency was particularly high. In Japan, health problems are listed as the primary justification for suicide.[103]

Sleep disturbances, such as insomnia[104] and sleep apnea, are risk factors for depression and suicide. In some instances, the sleep disturbances may be a risk factor independent of depression.[105] A number of other medical conditions may present with symptoms similar to mood disorders, including hypothyroidism, Alzheimer's, brain tumors, systemic lupus erythematosus, and adverse effects from a number of medications (such as beta blockers and steroids).

Psychosocial factors

A number of psychological factors increase the risk of suicide including: hopelessness, loss of pleasure in life, depression, anxiousness, agitation, rigid thinking, rumination, thought suppression, and poor coping skills.[72] [106] [107] A poor ability to solve problems, the loss of abilities one used to have, and poor impulse control also play a role.[72] [108] In older adults, the perception of being a burden to others is important.[109] Those who have never married are also at greater risk.[21] Recent life stresses, such as a loss of a family member or friend or the loss of a job, might be a contributing factor.[72] [64]

Certain personality factors, especially high levels of neuroticism and introvertedness, have been associated with suicide. This might lead to people who are isolated and sensitive to distress to be more likely to attempt suicide. On the other hand, optimism has been shown to have a protective effect. Other psychological risk factors include having few reasons for living and feeling trapped in a stressful situation. Changes to the stress response system in the brain might be altered during suicidal states. Specifically, changes in the polyamine system[110] and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.[111]

Social isolation and the lack of social support has been associated with an increased risk of suicide. Poverty is also a factor,[112] with heightened relative poverty compared to those around a person increasing suicide risk.[113] Over 200,000 farmers in India have died by suicide since 1997, partly due to issues of debt.[114] In China, suicide is three times as likely in rural regions as urban ones, partly, it is believed, due to financial difficulties in this area of the country.[115]

Being religious may reduce one's risk of suicide while beliefs that suicide is noble may increase it.[116] [117] This has been attributed to the negative stance many religions take against suicide and to the greater connectedness religion may give. Muslims, among religious people, appear to have a lower rate of suicide; however, the data supporting this is not strong. There does not appear to be a difference in rates of attempted suicide. Young women in the Middle East may have higher rates.[118]

Occupational factors

See also: Suicide in the military. Certain occupations carry an elevated risk of self-harm and suicide, such as military careers. Research in several countries has found that the rate of suicide among former armed forces personnel in particular,[119] [120] [121] [122] and young veterans especially,[123] [124] is markedly higher than that found in the general population. War veterans have a higher risk of suicide due in part to higher rates of mental illness, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, and physical health problems related to war.[125]

Media

See also: Copycat suicide and Social media and suicide. The media, including the Internet, plays an important role. Certain depictions of suicide may increase its occurrence, with high-volume, prominent, repetitive coverage glorifying or romanticizing suicide having the most impact.[126] For example, about 15–40% of people leave a suicide note,[127] and media are discouraged from reporting the contents of that message. When detailed descriptions of how to kill oneself by a specific means are portrayed, this method of suicide can be imitated in vulnerable people.[22] This phenomenon has been observed in several cases after press coverage.[128] [129] In a bid to reduce the adverse effect of media portrayals concerning suicide report, one of the effective methods is to educate journalists on how to report suicide news in a manner that might reduce that possibility of imitation and encourage those at risk to seek for help. When journalists follow certain reporting guidelines the risk of suicides can be decreased. Getting buy-in from the media industry, however, can be difficult, especially in the long term.

This trigger of suicide contagion or copycat suicide is known as the "Werther effect", named after the protagonist in Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther who killed himself and then was emulated by many admirers of the book. This risk is greater in adolescents who may romanticize death.[130] It appears that while news media has a significant effect, that of the entertainment media is equivocal.[131] [132] It is unclear if searching for information about suicide on the Internet relates to the risk of suicide.[133] The opposite of the Werther effect is the proposed "Papageno effect", in which coverage of effective coping mechanisms may have a protective effect. The term is based upon a character in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute—fearing the loss of a loved one, he had planned to kill himself until his friends helped him out.[134] As a consequence, fictional portrayals of suicide, showing alternative consequences or negative consequences, might have a preventive effect,[135] for instance fiction might normalize mental health problems and encourage help-seeking.[136]

Environmental exposures

Some environmental exposures, including air pollution, intense sunlight, sunlight duration, hot weather, and high altitude, are associated with suicide.[137] There is a possible association between short-term PM10 exposure and suicide.[138] [139] These factors might affect certain high-risk individuals more than others.

The time of year may also affect suicide rates. There appears to be a decrease around Christmas,[140] but an increase in rates during spring and summer, which might be related to exposure to sunshine. Another study found that the risk may be greater for males on their birthday.[141]

Genetics might influence rates of suicide. A family history of suicide, especially in the mother, affects children more than adolescents or adults. Adoption studies have shown that this is the case for biological relatives, but not adopted relatives. This makes familial risk factors unlikely to be due to imitation. Once mental disorders are accounted for, the estimated heritability rate is 36% for suicidal ideation and 17% for suicide attempts. An evolutionary explanation for suicide is that it may improve inclusive fitness. This may occur if the person dying by suicide cannot have more children and takes resources away from relatives by staying alive. An objection to this explanation is that deaths by healthy adolescents likely do not increase inclusive fitness. Adaptation to a very different ancestral environment may be maladaptive in the current one.[142]

Other factors

Trauma is a risk factor for suicidality in both children[143] and adults. Some may take their own lives to escape bullying or prejudice.[144] A history of childhood sexual abuse[145] and time spent in foster care are also risk factors.[146] Sexual abuse is believed to contribute to approximately 20% of the overall risk. Significant adversity early in life has a negative effect on problem-solving skills and memory, both of which are implicated in suicidality. According to a 2022 study, adverse childhood experiences maybe "associated with a two-fold higher odds" of anxiety disorders, depression and suicidality."[147]

Problem gambling is associated with increased suicidal ideation and attempts compared to the general population.[148] Between 12 and 24% of pathological gamblers attempt suicide. The rate of suicide among their spouses is three times greater than that of the general population.[149] Other factors that increase the risk in problem gamblers include concomitant mental illness, alcohol, and drug misuse.[150]

Infection by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii, more commonly known as toxoplasmosis, has been linked with suicide risk. One explanation states that this is caused by altered neurotransmitter activity due to the immunological response.

Rational

Rational suicide is the reasoned taking of one's own life.[151] However, some consider suicide as never being rational.[151]

Euthanasia and assisted suicide are accepted practices in a number of countries among those who have a poor quality of life without the possibility of getting better.[152] [153] They are supported by the legal arguments for a right to die.[153]

The act of taking one's life for the benefit of others is known as altruistic suicide.[154] An example of this is an elder ending his or her life to leave greater amounts of food for the younger people in the community. Suicide in some Inuit cultures has been seen as an act of respect, courage, or wisdom.

A suicide attack is a political or religious action where an attacker carries out violence against others which they understand will result in their own death.[155] Some suicide bombers are motivated by a desire to obtain martyrdoms or are religiously motivated. Kamikaze missions were carried out as a duty to a higher cause or moral obligation.[156] Murder–suicide is an act of homicide followed within a week by suicide of the person who carried out the act.[157]

Mass suicides are often performed under social pressure where members give up autonomy to a leader (see Notable cases below).[158] Mass suicides can take place with as few as two people, often referred to as a suicide pact.[159] In extenuating situations where continuing to live would be intolerable, some people use suicide as a means of escape.[160] [161] Some inmates in Nazi concentration camps are known to have killed themselves during the Holocaust by deliberately touching the electrified fences.[162]

Prevention

See main article: Suicide prevention.

Suicide prevention is a term used for the collective efforts to reduce the incidence of suicide through preventive measures. Protective factors for suicide include support, and access to therapy.[58] About 60% of people with suicidal thoughts do not seek help.[163] Reasons for not doing so include low perceived need, and wanting to deal with the problem alone. Despite these high rates, there are few established treatments available for suicidal behavior.

Reducing access to certain methods, such as access to firearms or toxins such as opioids and pesticides, can reduce risk of suicide by that method.[22] [164] [13] [36] Reducing access to easily-accessible methods of suicide may make impulsive attempts less likely to succeed.[165] Other measures include reducing access to charcoal (for burning) and adding barriers on bridges and subway platforms.[22] [166] Treatment of drug and alcohol addiction, depression, and those who have attempted suicide in the past, may also be effective.[13] Some have proposed reducing access to alcohol as a preventive strategy (such as reducing the number of bars).[167]

In young adults who have recently thought about suicide, cognitive behavioral therapy appears to improve outcomes.[168] [106] School-based programs that increase mental health literacy and train staff have shown mixed results on suicide rates. Economic development through its ability to reduce poverty may be able to decrease suicide rates. Efforts to increase social connection, especially in elderly males, may be effective.[169] In people who have attempted suicide, following up on them might prevent repeat attempts.[170] Although crisis hotlines are common, there is little evidence to support or refute their effectiveness. Preventing childhood trauma provides an opportunity for suicide prevention. The World Suicide Prevention Day is observed annually on 10 September with the support of the International Association for Suicide Prevention and the World Health Organization.[171]

Diet

About 50% of people who die of suicide have a mood disorder such as major depression.[172] [173] Sleep and diet may play a role in depression (major depressive disorder), and interventions in these areas may be an effective add-on to conventional methods.[174] Vitamin B2, B6 and B12 deficiency may cause depression in females.[175]

Risk of depression may be reduced with a healthy diet "high in fruits, vegetables, nuts, and legumes; moderate amounts of poultry, eggs, and dairy products; and only occasional red meat".[176] [177] A balanced diet and the consumption of lots of water is essential for mental health. Consuming oily fish may also help as they contain omega-3 fats. Consuming too much refined carbohydrates (e.g., snack foods) may increase the risk of depression symptoms. The mechanism on how diet improves or worsens mental health is still not fully understood. Blood glucose levels alterations, inflammation, or effects on the gut microbiome have been suggested.

Screening

There is little data on the effects of screening the general population on the ultimate rate of suicide.[178] [179] Screening those who come to the emergency departments with injuries from self-harm have been shown to help identify suicide ideation and suicide intention. Psychometric tests such as the Beck Depression Inventory or the Geriatric Depression Scale for older people are being used.[180] As there is a high rate of people who test positive via these tools that are not at risk of suicide, there are concerns that screening may significantly increase mental health care resource utilization.[181] Assessing those at high risk, though, is recommended for.[21] Asking about suicidality does not appear to increase the risk.[21]

Treatment of mental illness

See also: Antidepressants and suicide risk and Group psychotherapy.

In those with mental health problems, a number of treatments may reduce the risk of suicide. Those who are actively suicidal may be admitted to psychiatric care either voluntarily or involuntarily.[21] Possessions that may be used to harm oneself are typically removed.[182] Some clinicians get patients to sign suicide prevention contracts where they agree to not harm themselves if released.[21] However, evidence does not support a significant effect from this practice.[21] If a person is at low risk, outpatient mental health treatment may be arranged.[182] Short-term hospitalization has not been found to be more effective than community care for improving outcomes in those with borderline personality disorder who are chronically suicidal.[183] [184]

There is tentative evidence that psychotherapy, specifically dialectical behaviour therapy, reduces suicidality in adolescents[185] as well as in those with borderline personality disorder.[186] It may also be useful in decreasing suicide attempts in adults at high risk.[187]

There is controversy around the benefit-versus-harm of antidepressants. In young persons, some antidepressants, such as SSRIs, appear to increase the risk of suicidality from 25 per 1000 to 40 per 1000.[188] In older persons, however, they may decrease the risk.[21] Lithium appears effective at lowering the risk in those with bipolar disorder and major depression to nearly the same levels as that of the general population.[189] [190] Clozapine may decrease the thoughts of suicide in some people with schizophrenia.[191] Ketamine, which is a dissociative anaesthetic, seems to lower the rate of suicidal ideation.[192] In the United States, health professionals are legally required to take reasonable steps to try to prevent suicide.[193] [194]

Caring letters

See main article: Caring letters. The "Caring Letters" model of suicide prevention[195] [196] involved mailing short letters that expressed the researchers' interest in the recipients without pressuring them to take any action. The intervention reduced deaths by suicide, as proven through a randomized controlled trial.[197] The technique involves letters sent from a researcher who had spoken at length with the recipient during a suicidal crisis. The typewritten form letters were brief – sometimes as short as two sentences – personally signed by the researcher, and expressed interest in the recipient without making any demands. They were initially sent monthly, eventually decreasing in frequency to quarterly letters; if the recipient wrote back, then an additional personal letter was mailed.

Caring letters are inexpensive and either the only, or one of very few, approaches to suicide prevention that has been scientifically proven to work during the first years after a suicide attempt that resulted in hospitalization.

Methods

See main article: Suicide methods. The leading method of suicide varies among countries. The leading methods in different regions include hanging, pesticide poisoning, and firearms.[198] These differences are believed to be in part due to availability of the different methods.[22] A review of 56 countries found that hanging was the most common method in most of the countries,[198] accounting for 53% of male suicides and 39% of female suicides.[199]

Worldwide, 30% of suicides are estimated to occur from pesticide poisoning, most of which occur in the developing world.[9] The use of this method varies markedly from 4% in Europe to more than 50% in the Pacific region.[200] It is also common in Latin America due to the ease of access within the farming populations.[22] In many countries, drug overdoses account for approximately 60% of suicides among women and 30% among men.[201] Many are unplanned and occur during an acute period of ambivalence.[22] The death rate varies by method: firearms 80–90%, drowning 65–80%, hanging 60–85%, jumping 35–60%, charcoal burning 40–50%, pesticides 60–75%, and medication overdose 1.5–4.0%.[22] The most common attempted methods of suicide differ from the most common methods of completion; up to 85% of attempts are via drug overdose in the developed world.[182]

In China, the consumption of pesticides is the most common method.[202] In Japan, self-disembowelment known as seppuku (harakiri) still occurs;[202] however, hanging and jumping are the most common.[203] Jumping to one's death is common in both Hong Kong and Singapore at 50% and 80% respectively.[22] In Switzerland, firearms are the most frequent suicide method in young males, although this method has decreased since guns have become less common.[204] [205] In the United States, 50% of suicides involve the use of firearms, with this method being somewhat more common in men (56%) than women (31%).[206] The next most common cause was hanging in males (28%) and self-poisoning in females (31%). Together, hanging and poisoning constituted about 42% of U.S. suicides .

Epidemiology

See also: Seasonal effects on suicide rates. Approximately 1.4% of people die by suicide, a mortality rate of 11.6 per 100,000 persons per year.[16] [21] Suicide resulted in 842,000 deaths in 2013 up from 712,000 deaths in 1990.[15] Rates of suicide have increased by 60% from the 1960s to 2012, with these increases seen primarily in the developing world.[4] Globally, /2009, suicide is the tenth leading cause of death.[4] For every suicide that results in death there are between 10 and 40 attempted suicides.[21]

Suicide rates differ significantly between countries and over time.[16] As a percentage of deaths in 2008 it was: Africa 0.5%, South-East Asia 1.9%, Americas 1.2% and Europe 1.4%.[16] Rates per 100,000 were: Australia 8.6, Canada 11.1, China 12.7, India 23.2, United Kingdom 7.6, United States 11.4 and South Korea 28.9.[207] [208] It was ranked as the 10th leading cause of death in the United States in 2016 with about 45,000 cases that year.[209] Rates have increased in the United States in the last few years,[209] with about 49,500 people dying by suicide in 2022, the highest number ever recorded.[210] In the United States, about 650,000 people are seen in emergency departments yearly due to attempting suicide.[21] The United States rate among men in their 50s rose by nearly half in the decade 1999–2010.[211] Greenland, Lithuania, Japan, and Hungary have the highest rates of suicide.[16] Around 75% of suicides occur in the developing world.[9] The countries with the greatest absolute numbers of suicides are China and India, partly due to their large population size, accounting for over half the total.[16] In China, suicide is the 5th leading cause of death.

An unofficial report estimated 5,000 suicides in Iran in 2022.[212]

Sex and gender

See main article: Gender differences in suicide. Globally, death by suicide occurs about 1.8 times more often in males than females.[16] [213] In the Western world, males die three to four times more often by means of suicide than do females.[16] This difference is even more pronounced in those over the age of 65, with tenfold more males than females dying by suicide. Suicide attempts and self-harm are between two and four times more frequent among females.[21] [214] [215] Researchers have attributed the difference between suicide and attempted suicide among the sexes to males using more lethal means to end their lives.[216] [217] [218] However, separating intentional suicide attempts from non-suicidal self-harm is not currently done in places like the United States when gathering statistics at the national level.[219]

China has one of the highest female suicide rates in the world and is the only country where it is higher than that of men (ratio of 0.9).[16] [220] In the Eastern Mediterranean, suicide rates are nearly equivalent between males and females.[16] The highest rate of female suicide is found in South Korea at 22 per 100,000, with high rates in South-East Asia and the Western Pacific generally.[16]

A number of reviews have found an increased risk of suicide among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people.[221] [222] Among transgender persons, rates of attempted suicide are about 40% compared to a general population rate of 5%.[223] [224] This is believed to in part be due to social stigmatisation.[225]

Age

In many countries, the rate of suicide is highest in the middle-aged[226] or elderly.[22] The absolute number of suicides, however, is greatest in those between 15 and 29 years old, due to the number of people in this age group.[16] Worldwide, the average age of suicide is between age 30 and 49 for both men and women.[227] Suicidality is rare in children, but increases during the transition to adolescence.[228]

In the United States, the suicide death rate is greatest in Caucasian men older than 80 years, even though younger people more frequently attempt suicide. It is the second most common cause of death in adolescents[229] and in young males is second only to accidental death. In young males in the developed world, it is the cause of nearly 30% of mortality. In the developing world rates are similar, but it makes up a smaller proportion of overall deaths due to higher rates of death from other types of trauma. In South-East Asia, in contrast to other areas of the world, deaths from suicide occur at a greater rate in young females than elderly females.

History

See main article: History of suicide.

In ancient Athens, a person who died by suicide without the approval of the state was denied the honors of a normal burial. The person would be buried alone, on the outskirts of the city, without a headstone or marker.[230] It was also common for the hand to be cut off the body and buried separately[231] - the hand (and the instrument used) being considered the perpetrator.[232] However, it was deemed to be an acceptable method to deal with military defeat. In Ancient Rome, while suicide was initially permitted, it was later deemed a crime against the state due to its economic costs.[233] Aristotle condemned all forms of suicide while Plato was ambivalent. In Rome, some reasons for suicide included volunteering death in a gladiator combat, guilt over murdering someone, to save the life of another, as a result of mourning, from shame from being raped, and as an escape from intolerable situations like physical suffering, military defeat, or criminal pursuit.

Suicide came to be regarded as a sin in Christian Europe and was condemned at the Council of Arles (452) as the work of the Devil. In the Middle Ages, the Church had drawn-out discussions as to when the desire for martyrdom was suicidal, as in the case of martyrs of Córdoba. Despite these disputes and occasional official rulings, Catholic doctrine was not entirely settled on the subject of suicide until the later 17th century. A criminal ordinance issued by Louis XIV of France in 1670 was extremely severe, even for the times: the dead person's body was drawn through the streets, face down, and then hung or thrown on a garbage heap. Additionally, all of the person's property was confiscated.[234] [235]

Attitudes towards suicide slowly began to shift during the Renaissance. John Donne's work Biathanatos contained one of the first modern defences of suicide, bringing proof from the conduct of Biblical figures, such as Jesus, Samson and Saul, and presenting arguments on grounds of reason and nature to sanction suicide in certain circumstances.[236]

The secularization of society that began during the Enlightenment questioned traditional religious attitudes (such as Christian views on suicide) toward suicide and brought a more modern perspective to the issue. David Hume denied that suicide was a crime as it affected no one and was potentially to the advantage of the individual. In his 1777 Essays on Suicide and the Immortality of the Soul he rhetorically asked, "Why should I prolong a miserable existence, because of some frivolous advantage which the public may perhaps receive from me?"[236] Hume's analysis was criticized by philosopher Philip Reed as being "uncharacteristically (for him) bad", since Hume took an unusually narrow conception of duty and his conclusion depended upon the suicide producing no harm to others – including causing no grief, feelings of guilt, or emotional pain to any surviving friends and family – which is almost never the case.[237] A shift in public opinion at large can also be discerned; The Times in 1786 initiated a spirited debate on the motion "Is suicide an act of courage?".[238]

By the 19th century, the act of suicide had shifted from being viewed as caused by sin to being caused by insanity in Europe.[235] Although suicide remained illegal during this period, it increasingly became the target of satirical comments, such as the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera The Mikado, which satirized the idea of executing someone who had already killed himself.

By 1879, English law began to distinguish between suicide and homicide, although suicide still resulted in forfeiture of estate.[239] In 1882, the deceased were permitted daylight burial in England[240] and by the middle of the 20th century, suicide had become legal in much of the Western world. The term suicide first emerged shortly before 1700 to replace expressions on self-death which were often characterized as a form of self-murder in the West.[241]

Social and culture

Legislation

See main article: Suicide legislation.

Suicide is a crime in some parts of the world.[242] No country in Europe currently considers suicide or attempted suicide to be a crime.[243] It was, however, in most Western European countries from the Middle Ages until at least the 19th century.[239] The Netherlands was the first country to legalize both physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia, which took effect in 2002, although only doctors are allowed to assist in either of them, and have to follow a protocol prescribed by Dutch law.[244] If such protocol is not followed, it is an offence punishable by law. In Germany, active euthanasia is illegal and anyone present during suicide may be prosecuted for failure to render aid in an emergency.[245] Switzerland has taken steps to legalize assisted suicide for the chronically mentally ill. The high court in Lausanne, Switzerland, in a 2006 ruling, granted an anonymous individual with longstanding psychiatric difficulties the right to end his own life.[246] England and Wales decriminalized suicide via the Suicide Act 1961 and the Republic of Ireland in 1993. The word "commit" was used in reference to its being illegal, but many organisations have stopped it because of the negative connotation.[247] [248]

In the United States, suicide is not illegal, but may be associated with penalties for those who attempt it. Physician-assisted suicide is legal in the state of Washington for people with terminal diseases.[249] In Oregon, people with terminal diseases may request medications to help end their life.[250] Canadians who have attempted suicide may be barred from entering the United States. U.S. laws allow border guards to deny access to people who have a mental illness, including those with previous suicide attempts.[251] [252]

In Australia, suicide is not a crime.[253] However, it is a crime to counsel, incite, or aid and abet another in attempting to die by suicide, and the law explicitly allows any person to use "such force as may reasonably be necessary" to prevent another from taking their own life.[254] The Northern Territory of Australia briefly had legal physician-assisted suicide from 1996 to 1997.[255]

In India, suicide was illegal until 2014, and surviving family members used to face legal difficulties.[256] [257] It remains a criminal offense in most Muslim-majority nations.

In Malaysia, suicide per se is not a crime; however, attempted suicide is. Under Section 309 of the Penal Code, a person convicted of attempting suicide can be punished with imprisonment of up to one year, fined, or both. There are ongoing efforts to decriminalise attempted suicide, although rights groups and non-governmental organisations such as the local chapter of Befrienders say that progress has been slow.[258] [259] Proponents of decriminalisation argue that suicide legislation may deter people from seeking help, and may even strengthen the resolve of would-be suicides to end their lives to avoid prosecution.[260] The first reading of a bill to repeal Section 309 of the Penal Code was tabled in Parliament in April 2023, bringing Malaysia one step closer towards decriminalising attempted suicide.[261]

Suicide became a trending crisis in North Korea in 2023; a secret order criminalized suicide as treason against the socialist state.[262]

Religious views

See main article: Religious views on suicide.

Christianity

See main article: Christian views on suicide. Most forms of Christianity consider suicide sinful, based mainly on the writings of influential Christian thinkers of the Middle Ages, such as St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas, but suicide was not considered a sin under the Byzantine Christian code of Justinian, for instance.[263] [264] In Catholic and Orthodox doctrine, suicide is considered to be murder, violating the commandment "Thou shalt not kill," and historically neither church would even hold a burial service for a member that died by suicide, deeming it an act that condemned the person to hell, since they died in a state of mortal sin.[265] The basic idea being that life is a gift given by God which should not be spurned, and that suicide is against the "natural order" and thus interferes with God's master plan for the world.[266] However, it is believed that mental illness or grave fear of suffering diminishes the responsibility of the one completing suicide.[267]

Judaism

See main article: Jewish views on suicide. Judaism focuses on the importance of valuing this life, and as such, suicide is tantamount to denying God's goodness in the world. Despite this, under extreme circumstances when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion, there are several accounts of Jews having died by suicide, either individually or in groups (see Holocaust, Masada, First French persecution of the Jews and York Castle for examples), and as a grim reminder there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for "when the knife is at the throat", for those dying "to sanctify God's Name" (see Martyrdom). These acts have received mixed responses by Jewish authorities, regarded by some as examples of heroic martyrdom, while others state that it was wrong for them to take their own lives in anticipation of martyrdom.[268]

Islam

Islamic religious views are against suicide.[29] Suiciding is Haram in Islam. The Quran forbids it by stating "do not kill or destroy yourself".[269] [270] The hadiths also state individual suicide to be unlawful and a sin.[29] Stigma is often associated with suicide in Islamic countries.[270] One who suicides and succeeds, he\she shall never enter Paradise.

Hinduism and Jainism

In Hinduism, suicide is generally disdained and is considered equally sinful as murdering another in contemporary Hindu society. Hindu Scriptures state that one who dies by suicide will become part of the spirit world, wandering earth until the time one would have otherwise died, had one not taken one's own life.[271] However, Hinduism accepts a man's right to end one's life through the non-violent practice of fasting to death, termed Prayopavesa;[272] but Prayopavesa is strictly restricted to people who have no desire or ambition left, and no responsibilities remaining in this life.[272]

Jainism has a similar practice named Santhara. Sati, or self-immolation by widows, is a rare and illegal practice in Hindu society.[273]

Ainu

Within the Ainu religion, someone who dies by suicide is believed to become a ghost (tukap) who would haunt the living,[274] to come to fulfillment from which they were excluded during life.[275] Also, someone who insults another so they kill themselves is regarded as co-responsible for their death.[276] According to Norbert Richard Adami, this ethic exists due to the case that solidarity within the community is much more important to Ainu culture than it is to the Western world.

Philosophy

See main article: Philosophy of suicide. A number of questions are raised within the philosophy of suicide, including what constitutes suicide, whether or not suicide can be a rational choice, and the moral permissibility of suicide.[277] Arguments as to acceptability of suicide in moral or social terms range from the position that the act is inherently immoral and unacceptable under any circumstances, to a regard for suicide as a sacrosanct right of anyone who believes they have rationally and conscientiously come to the decision to end their own lives, even if they are young and healthy.

Opponents to suicide include philosophers such as Augustine of Hippo, Thomas Aquinas,[277] Immanuel Kant[278] and, arguably, John Stuart Mill – Mill's focus on the importance of liberty and autonomy meant that he rejected choices which would prevent a person from making future autonomous decisions.[279] Others view suicide as a legitimate matter of personal choice. Supporters of this position maintain that no one should be forced to suffer against their will, particularly from conditions such as incurable disease, mental illness, and old age, with no possibility of improvement. They reject the belief that suicide is always irrational, arguing instead that it can be a valid last resort for those enduring major pain or trauma.[280] A stronger stance would argue that people should be allowed to autonomously choose to die regardless of whether they are suffering. Notable supporters of this school of thought include Scottish empiricist David Hume,[277] who accepted suicide so long as it did not harm or violate a duty to God, other people, or the self, and American bioethicist Jacob Appel.[246] [281]

Advocacy

See also: Advocacy of suicide. Advocacy of suicide has occurred in many cultures and subcultures. The Japanese military during World War II encouraged and glorified kamikaze attacks, which were suicide attacks by military aviators from the Empire of Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stages of the Pacific Theater of World War II. Japanese society as a whole has been described as "suicide-tolerant"[282] (see Suicide in Japan).

Internet searches for information on suicide return webpages that, in a 2008 study, about 50% of the time provide information on suicide methods. A similar study found that 11% of sites encouraged suicide attempts.[283] There is some concern that such sites may push those predisposed over the edge. Some people form suicide pacts online, either with pre-existing friends or people they have recently encountered in chat rooms or message boards. The Internet, however, may also help prevent suicide by providing a social group for those who are isolated.[284]

Locations

See also: List of suicide sites and Suicides at the Golden Gate Bridge. Some landmarks have become known for high levels of suicide attempts. These include China's Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge,[285] San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge, Japan's Aokigahara Forest,[286] England's Beachy Head,[287] and Toronto's Bloor Street Viaduct.[288], the Golden Gate Bridge has had more than 1,300 suicides by jumping since its construction in 1937.[289] Many locations where suicide is common have constructed barriers to prevent it;[290] this includes the Luminous Veil in Toronto, the Eiffel Tower in Paris, the West Gate Bridge in Melbourne, and Empire State Building in New York City. They generally appear to be effective.[291]

Notable cases

An example of mass suicide is the 1978 Jonestown mass murder/suicide in which 909 members of the Peoples Temple, an American new religious movement led by Jim Jones, ended their lives by drinking grape Flavor Aid laced with cyanide and various prescription drugs.[292] [293] [294]

Thousands of Japanese civilians took their own lives in the last days of the Battle of Saipan in 1944, some jumping from "Suicide Cliff" and "Banzai Cliff".[295] The 1981 Irish hunger strikes, led by Bobby Sands, resulted in 10 deaths. The cause of death was recorded by the coroner as "starvation, self-imposed" rather than suicide; this was modified to simply "starvation" on the death certificates after protest from the dead strikers' families.[296] During World War II, Erwin Rommel was found to have foreknowledge of the 20 July plot on Hitler's life; he was threatened with public trial, execution, and reprisals on his family unless he killed himself.[297]

Other species

See main article: Animal suicide. As suicide requires a willful attempt to die, some feel it therefore cannot be said to occur in non-human animals.[298] Suicidal behavior has been observed in Salmonella seeking to overcome competing bacteria by triggering an immune system response against them.[299] Suicidal defenses by workers are also seen in the Brazilian ant Forelius pusillus, where a small group of ants leaves the security of the nest after sealing the entrance from the outside each evening.[300]

Pea aphids, when threatened by a ladybug, can explode themselves, scattering and protecting their brethren and sometimes even killing the ladybug; this form of suicidal altruism is known as autothysis.[301] Some species of termites (for example Globitermes sulphureus)[302] have soldiers that explode, covering their enemies with sticky goo.[303] [302]

There have been anecdotal reports of dogs, horses, and dolphins killing themselves,[304] but little scientific study of animal suicide.[305] Animal suicide is usually put down to romantic human interpretation and is not generally thought to be intentional. Some of the reasons animals are thought to unintentionally kill themselves include: psychological stress, infection by certain parasites or fungi, or disruption of a long-held social tie, such as the ending of a long association with an owner and thus not accepting food from another individual.[306]

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. De La Vega D, Giner L, Courtet P. 4549236 . Suicidality in Subjects With Anxiety or Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders: Recent Advances . Current Psychiatry Reports . 20 . 4 . 26 . March 2018 . 29594718 . 10.1007/s11920-018-0885-z . 1523-3812.
  2. Web site: Suicide across the world (2016) . World Health Organization . 27 September 2019 . http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20040701084208/http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/ . dead . 1 July 2004 . 16 October 2019 .
  3. Book: Stedman's Medical Dictionary . registration . 2006. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins . Philadelphia . 978-0-7817-3390-8 . 28th.
  4. Hawton K, van Heeringen K . 208790312 . Suicide . Lancet . 373 . 9672 . 1372–81 . April 2009 . 19376453 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60372-X .
  5. Richa S, Fahed M, Khoury E, Mishara B . 25741716 . Suicide in autism spectrum disorders . Archives of Suicide Research . 18 . 4 . 327–39 . 2014 . 24713024 . 10.1080/13811118.2013.824834 .
  6. Dodds TJ . Prescribed Benzodiazepines and Suicide Risk: A Review of the Literature . The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders . 19 . 2 . March 2017 . 28257172 . 10.4088/PCC.16r02037 . free .
  7. Bottino SM, Bottino CM, Regina CG, Correia AV, Ribeiro WS . Cyberbullying and adolescent mental health: systematic review . Cadernos de Saude Publica . 31 . 3 . 463–75 . March 2015 . 25859714 . 10.1590/0102-311x00036114 . free .
  8. Web site: Suicide rates rising across the U.S. . CDC Online Newsroom . 19 September 2019 . en-us . 11 April 2019. Relationship problems or loss, substance misuse; physical health problems; and job, money, legal or housing stress often contributed to risk for suicide..
  9. Web site: Suicide Fact sheet N°398. WHO. 3 March 2016. April 2016. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192347/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs398/en/. 4 March 2016.
  10. Book: Preventing Suicide A Resource for Media Professionals. 2008. World Health Organization. Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse . 978-92-4-159707-4.
  11. DeCou CR, Comtois KA, Landes SJ . Dialectical Behavior Therapy Is Effective for the Treatment of Suicidal Behavior: A Meta-Analysis . Behav Ther . 50 . 1 . 60–72 . January 2019 . 30661567 . 10.1016/j.beth.2018.03.009 . 58666001 .
  12. Sakinofsky I . The current evidence base for the clinical care of suicidal patients: strengths and weaknesses . Canadian Journal of Psychiatry . 52 . 6 Suppl 1 . 7S–20S . June 2007 . 17824349 . Other suicide prevention strategies that have been considered are crisis centers and hotlines, method control, and media education... There is minimal research on these strategies. Even though crisis centers and hotlines are used by suicidal youth, information about their impact on suicidal behavior is lacking. .
  13. Zalsman G, Hawton K, Wasserman D, van Heeringen K, Arensman E, Sarchiapone M, Carli V, Höschl C, Barzilay R, Balazs J, Purebl G, Kahn JP, Sáiz PA, Lipsicas CB, Bobes J, Cozman D, Hegerl U, Zohar J . 6 . Suicide prevention strategies revisited: 10-year systematic review . The Lancet. Psychiatry . 3 . 7 . 646–59 . July 2016 . 27289303 . 10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30030-X . Other approaches that need further investigation include gatekeeper training, education of physicians, and internet and helpline support. . 1854/LU-8509936 . free .
  14. Wang H, Naghavi M, Allen C, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Carter A, etal . GBD 2015 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators . Global, regional, and national life expectancy, all-cause mortality, and cause-specific mortality for 249 causes of death, 1980–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015 . Lancet . 388 . 10053 . 1459–1544 . October 2016 . 27733281 . 5388903 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31012-1 . . For the number 828,000, see Table 5, line "Self-harm", second column (year 2015)
  15. Naghavi M, Wang H, Lozano R, Davis A, Liang X, Zhou M, etal . GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators . Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 . Lancet . 385 . 9963 . 117–71 . January 2015 . 25530442 . 4340604 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2 . . For the number 712,000, see Table 2, line "Self-harm", first column (year 1990)
  16. Värnik P . Suicide in the world . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 9 . 3 . 760–71 . March 2012 . 22690161 . 3367275 . 10.3390/ijerph9030760 . free .
  17. Fazel S, Runeson B . 210332277 . Suicide . New England Journal of Medicine . January 2020 . 382 . 3 . 266–74 . 10.1056/NEJMra1902944. 31940700 . 7116087 .
  18. Book: Preventing suicide: a global imperative. 2014. WHO. 978-92-4-156477-9. 7, 20, 40.
  19. Web site: Suicide rates per (100 000 population). World Health Organization.
  20. Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A . Suicide and psychiatric diagnosis: a worldwide perspective . World Psychiatry . 1 . 3 . 181–5 . October 2002 . 16946849 . 1489848 .
  21. Chang B, Gitlin D, Patel R . The depressed patient and suicidal patient in the emergency department: evidence-based management and treatment strategies . Emergency Medicine Practice . 13 . 9 . 1–23; quiz 23–4 . September 2011 . 22164363 .
  22. Yip PS, Caine E, Yousuf S, Chang SS, Wu KC, Chen YY . Means restriction for suicide prevention . Lancet . 379 . 9834 . 2393–9 . June 2012 . 22726520 . 6191653 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60521-2 .
  23. Book: Tomer A . Existential and Spiritual Issues in Death Attitudes. 2013. Psychology Press. 978-1-136-67690-1. 282.
  24. Book: Ritzer G, Stepnisky J . The Wiley-Blackwell companion to major social theorists . 2011 . Wiley-Blackwell . Malden, MA . 978-1-4443-9660-7 . 65 .
  25. Book: God, Religion, Science, Nature, Culture, and Morality. 2014. Archway Publishing. 978-1-4808-1124-9. 254.
  26. Book: Colt GH . The enigma of suicide. 1992. Simon & Schuster. New York. 978-0-671-76071-7. 139. 1st Touchstone.
  27. Web site: Book excerptise: The Four Hundred Songs of War and Wisdom: An Anthology of Poems from Classical Tamil, the Purananuru by George L. (tr.) Hart and Hank Heifetz (tr.) . Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Kanpur . 26 February 2014 . Kapilar for King Pari #107 — When Vel Pari is killed in battle, kapilar is supposed to have committed suicide by vadakirrutal - facing North and starving..
  28. Book: White T . Working with suicidal individuals : a guide to providing understanding, assessment and support. 2010. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. London. 978-1-84905-115-6. 12.
  29. Lester D . 35754641 . Suicide and islam . Archives of Suicide Research . 10 . 1 . 77–97 . 2006 . 16287698 . 10.1080/13811110500318489 .
  30. Aggarwal N . 35560934 . Rethinking suicide bombing . Crisis . 30 . 2 . 94–7 . 2009 . 19525169 . 10.1027/0227-5910.30.2.94 .
  31. Russell N . The Taboo of Suicide . Psychiatry . 31 . 2 . 173–183 . May 1968 . 27780435 . 10.1080/00332747.1968.11023545 .
  32. News: Vaughan M . The 'discovery' of suicide in Africa . BBC . 16 June 2020 . en-GB.
  33. Web site: Suicide . World Health Organization . 16 June 2020 . en.
  34. Book: Issues in Law & Medicine, Volume 3. 1987. National Legal Center for the Medically Dependent & Disabled, Incorporated, and the Horatio R. Storer Foundation, Incorporated . 39 .
  35. Book: Krug E . World Report on Violence and Health . 1 . 2002. World Health Organization. Genève. 978-92-4-154561-7. 185.
  36. Turecki G, Brent DA . March 2016 . Suicide and suicidal behaviour . Lancet . 387 . 10024 . 1227–39 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00234-2 . 5319859 . 26385066.
  37. Book: Gullota TP, Bloom M . Encyclopedia of Primary Prevention and Health Promotion. 2002. Kluwer Academic/Plenum. New York. 978-0-306-47296-1. 1112.
  38. suicidality . suicidality . 2023-08-03 .
  39. Book: Lester D . Wasserman D, Wasserman C . Oxford textbook of suicidology. 134–36. 2009. Oxford University Press. Oxford. 978-0-19-857005-9. Extended suicide. 10.1093/med/9780198570059.003.0022.
  40. Book: Seminars in general adult psychiatry. Stein G, Wilkinson G . 2007. Gaskell. 978-1-904671-44-2. 2nd. London. 144 .
  41. Olson R . Suicide and Language. Centre for Suicide Prevention. 2011. InfoExchange. 3. 4. 15 May 2013. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20120506202903/http://suicideinfo.ca/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=sNKET0k90VY%3D&tabid=554. 6 May 2012.
  42. Beaton S, Forster P, Maple M . Suicide and Language: Why we Shouldn't Use the 'C' Word. In Psych. February 2013. 35. 1. 30–31. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140815173633/http://www.psychology.org.au/Content.aspx?ID=5048. 15 August 2014.
  43. Book: Inclusive Language Guidelines. 13 February 2022. American Psychological Association. Washington, D.C.. 19.
  44. Book: Beck AT, Resnik HL, Lettieri DJ . The prediction of suicide . Bowie, MD . Charles Press . 1974 . 41 . Development of suicidal intent scales . 978-0-913486-13-9 .
  45. Web site: Recommendations for Reporting on Suicide. National Institute of Mental Health. 15 May 2013. 2001. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130427114237/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/suicide-prevention/save_310_guide_v6.pdf. 27 April 2013.
  46. Web site: Reporting Suicide and Self Harm. Time To Change. 2 January 2016. 2008. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160114191733/http://www.time-to-change.org.uk/node/75408. 14 January 2016.
  47. apstylebook . 865283308476928002 . 18 May 2017 . Avoid "committed suicide" except in direct quotes from authorities. Alternatives: "killed himself," "took her own life," "died by suicide." .
  48. News: Guardian and Observer style guide: S . The Guardian . 4 May 2021 . en.
  49. News: Ravitz J . The words to say -- and not to say -- about suicide . CNN . 11 June 2018.
  50. Web site: Ball PB . The Power of words. Canadian Association of Suicide Prevention. 16 May 2013. 2005. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20130513011216/http://www.suicideprevention.ca/about-suicide/the-power-of-words/. 13 May 2013.
  51. Pjevac M, Pregelj P . Neurobiology of suicidal behaviour . Psychiatria Danubina . 24 . Suppl 3 . S336-41 . October 2012 . 23114813 .
  52. Sher L . 25684743 . The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the pathophysiology of adolescent suicidal behavior . International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health . 23 . 3 . 181–5 . 2011 . 22191181 . 10.1515/ijamh.2011.041 .
  53. Sher L . Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and suicidal behavior . QJM . 104 . 5 . 455–8 . May 2011 . 21051476 . 10.1093/qjmed/hcq207 . free .
  54. Book: Yanowitch R, Coccaro EF . Aggression . The neurochemistry of human aggression . Advances in Genetics . 75 . 151–69 . 2011 . 22078480 . 10.1016/b978-0-12-380858-5.00005-8 . Elsevier . 9780123808585 .
  55. Book: Dwivedi Y . The neurobiological basis of suicide. 2012. Taylor & Francis/CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. 978-1-4398-3881-5. 166.
  56. Book: Stein G, Wilkinson G . Seminars in general adult psychiatry. 2007. Gaskell. London. 978-1-904671-44-2. 145. 2nd .
  57. Autry AE, Monteggia LM . Epigenetics in suicide and depression . Biological Psychiatry . 66 . 9 . 812–3 . November 2009 . 19833253 . 2770810 . 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.08.033 .
  58. Web site: Suicide Risk and Protective FactorsSuicideViolence PreventionInjury CenterCDC . www.cdc.gov . 29 July 2019 . en-us . 25 April 2019.
  59. Simpson G, Tate R . 24562104 . Suicidality in people surviving a traumatic brain injury: prevalence, risk factors and implications for clinical management . Brain Injury . 21 . 13–14 . 1335–51 . December 2007 . 18066936 . 10.1080/02699050701785542 .
  60. Miller M, Azrael D, Barber C . Suicide mortality in the United States: the importance of attending to method in understanding population-level disparities in the burden of suicide . Annual Review of Public Health . 33 . 393–408 . April 2012 . 22224886 . 10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124636 . free .
  61. Qin P, Agerbo E, Mortensen PB . 25133734 . Suicide risk in relation to socioeconomic, demographic, psychiatric, and familial factors: a national register-based study of all suicides in Denmark, 1981–1997 . The American Journal of Psychiatry . 160 . 4 . 765–72 . April 2003 . 12668367 . 10.1176/appi.ajp.160.4.765 . 10818/17040 . free .
  62. Suicide among adults aged 35-64 years--United States, 1999-2010 . MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 62 . 17 . 321–5 . May 2013 . 23636024 . 4604925 . Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) .
  63. Brent DA, Melhem N . Familial transmission of suicidal behavior . The Psychiatric Clinics of North America . 31 . 2 . 157–77 . June 2008 . 18439442 . 2440417 . 10.1016/j.psc.2008.02.001 .
  64. Web site: Suicide Risk and Protective FactorsSuicideViolence PreventionInjury CenterCDC. 25 April 2019. www.cdc.gov. 17 June 2019.
  65. May AM, Klonsky ED . 2016. What Distinguishes Suicide Attempters From Suicide Ideators? A Meta-Analysis of Potential Factors. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice. 23. 1. 5–20. 10.1111/cpsp.12136. 35079333 .
  66. Klonsky ED, May AM . Differentiating suicide attempters from suicide ideators: a critical frontier for suicidology research . Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior . 44 . 1 . 1–5 . February 2014 . 24313594 . 10.1111/sltb.12068 .
  67. Klonsky ED, Qiu T, Saffer BY . 21053071 . Recent advances in differentiating suicide attempters from suicide ideators . Current Opinion in Psychiatry . 30 . 1 . 15–20 . January 2017 . 27798483 . 10.1097/YCO.0000000000000294 .
  68. Web site: University of Manchester Centre for Mental Health and Risk. The National Confidential Inquiry into Suicide and Homicide by People with Mental Illness. https://web.archive.org/web/20120714134607/http://www.medicine.manchester.ac.uk/cmhr/centreforsuicideprevention/nci/reports/annual_report_2012.pdf. dead. 14 July 2012. 25 July 2012.
  69. Stone DM, Simon TR, Fowler KA, Kegler SR, Yuan K, Holland KM, Ivey-Stephenson AZ, Crosby AE . 6 . Vital Signs: Trends in State Suicide Rates – United States, 1999–2016 and Circumstances Contributing to Suicide – 27 States, 2015 . MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 67 . 22 . 617–624 . June 2018 . 29879094 . 5991813 . 10.15585/mmwr.mm6722a1 .
  70. Arsenault-Lapierre G, Kim C, Turecki G . Psychiatric diagnoses in 3275 suicides: a meta-analysis . BMC Psychiatry . 4 . 1 . 37 . November 2004 . 15527502 . 534107 . 10.1186/1471-244X-4-37 . free .
  71. Bostwick JM, Pankratz VS . Affective disorders and suicide risk: a reexamination . The American Journal of Psychiatry . 157 . 12 . 1925–32 . December 2000 . 11097952 . 10.1176/appi.ajp.157.12.1925 .
  72. Book: Kutcher S, Chehil S . Suicide Risk Management A Manual for Health Professionals.. John Wiley & Sons. Chicester. 978-1-119-95311-1. 30–33. 2012. 2nd .
  73. Pompili M, Girardi P, Ruberto A, Tatarelli R . 27142497 . Suicide in borderline personality disorder: a meta-analysis . Nordic Journal of Psychiatry . 59 . 5 . 319–24 . 2005 . 16757458 . 10.1080/08039480500320025 .
  74. Bertolote JM, Fleischmann A, De Leo D, Wasserman D . 13331602 . Psychiatric diagnoses and suicide: revisiting the evidence . Crisis . 25 . 4 . 147–55 . 2004 . 15580849 . 10.1027/0227-5910.25.4.147 .
  75. Angelakis I, Gooding P, Tarrier N, Panagioti M . Suicidality in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): a systematic review and meta-analysis . Clinical Psychology Review . 39 . 1–15 . July 2015 . 25875222 . 10.1016/j.cpr.2015.03.002 .
  76. Zahid S, Upthegrove R . 10644601 . Suicidality in Autistic Spectrum Disorders . Crisis . 38 . 4 . 237–246 . July 2017 . 28468556 . 10.1027/0227-5910/a000458 .
  77. Lieb K, Zanarini MC, Schmahl C, Linehan MM, Bohus M . Borderline personality disorder . Lancet . 364 . 9432 . 453–461 . 2004 . 15288745 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16770-6 . Between 40% and 65% of individuals who commit suicide meet criteria for a personality disorder, with borderline personality disorder being the most commonly associated. . 54280127 .
  78. van Os J, Kapur S . Schizophrenia . Lancet . 374 . 9690 . 635–645 . August 2009 . 19700006 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60995-8 . 22 January 2013 . dead . 208792724 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130623065810/http://xa.yimg.com/kq/groups/19525360/611943554/name/Schizophrenia+-+The+Lancet.pdf . 23 June 2013 . Jim van Os .
  79. Web site: Cheung A, Zwickl S . 23 March 2021 . Why have nearly half of transgender Australians attempted suicide? . 26 August 2022 . Pursuit . en . Melbourne, Australia . University of Melbourne .
  80. News: Transgender people and suicide . 26 August 2022 . Centre for Suicide Prevention . en-CA.
  81. Biggs M . Suicide by Clinic-Referred Transgender Adolescents in the United Kingdom . Archives of Sexual Behavior . 51 . 2 . 685–690 . February 2022 . 35043256 . 8888486 . 10.1007/s10508-022-02287-7 .
  82. Web site: 13 July 2021 . Suicide risk in transgender and gender diverse people . 26 August 2022 . National Elf Service . en-GB.
  83. Web site: Study Shows Shocking Rates of Attempted Suicide Among Trans Teens . 26 August 2022 . Human Rights Campaign . 12 September 2018 . en-US.
  84. Luoma JB, Martin CE, Pearson JL . Contact with mental health and primary care providers before suicide: a review of the evidence . The American Journal of Psychiatry . 159 . 6 . 909–16 . June 2002 . 12042175 . 5072576 . 10.1176/appi.ajp.159.6.909 .
  85. Pirkis J, Burgess P . Suicide and recency of health care contacts. A systematic review . The British Journal of Psychiatry . 173 . 6 . 462–74 . December 1998 . 9926074 . 10.1192/bjp.173.6.462 . 43144463 .
  86. Sharma T, Guski LS, Freund N, Gøtzsche PC . Suicidality and aggression during antidepressant treatment: systematic review and meta-analyses based on clinical study reports . BMJ . 352 . i65 . January 2016 . 26819231 . 4729837 . 10.1136/bmj.i65 .
  87. Book: Levin JD, Culkin J, Perrotto RS . Introduction to chemical dependency counseling. 2001. Jason Aronson. Northvale, NJ. 978-0-7657-0289-0. 150–52.
  88. Book: Behavioral science in medicine. Fadem B . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2004. 978-0-7817-3669-5. Philadelphia. 217.
  89. Youssef NA, Rich CL . Does acute treatment with sedatives/hypnotics for anxiety in depressed patients affect suicide risk? A literature review . Annals of Clinical Psychiatry . 20 . 3 . 157–69 . 2008 . 18633742 . 10.1080/10401230802177698 .
  90. Sher L . Alcohol consumption and suicide . QJM . 99 . 1 . 57–61 . January 2006 . 16287907 . 10.1093/qjmed/hci146 . free .
  91. Darke S, Ross J . 11619947 . Suicide among heroin users: rates, risk factors and methods . Addiction . 97 . 11 . 1383–94 . November 2002 . 12410779 . 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00214.x . free .
  92. Sher L . 42672912 . Functional magnetic resonance imaging in studies of the neurobiology of suicidal behavior in adolescents with alcohol use disorders . International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health . 19 . 1 . 11–8 . 2007 . 17458319 . 10.1515/ijamh.2007.19.1.11 .
  93. Darke S, Kaye S, McKetin R, Duflou J . 39592475 . Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use . Drug and Alcohol Review . 27 . 3 . 253–62 . May 2008 . 18368606 . 10.1080/09595230801923702 .
  94. Book: Lexicon of psychiatry, neurology, and the neurosciences . Ayd FJ . Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2000. 978-0-7817-2468-5. 2nd. Philadelphia [u.a.]. 256 .
  95. Hughes JR . Smoking and suicide: a brief overview . Drug and Alcohol Dependence . 98 . 3 . 169–78 . December 2008 . 18676099 . 2585177 . 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.06.003 .
  96. Plener PL, Schumacher TS, Munz LM, Groschwitz RC . The longitudinal course of non-suicidal self-injury and deliberate self-harm: a systematic review of the literature . Borderline Personality Disorder and Emotion Dysregulation . 2 . 1 . 2 . 2015 . 26401305 . 4579518 . 10.1186/s40479-014-0024-3 . free .
  97. Greydanus DE, Shek D . Deliberate self-harm and suicide in adolescents . The Keio Journal of Medicine . 58 . 3 . 144–151 . September 2009 . 19826208 . 10.2302/kjm.58.144 . free . 10397/4495 . free .
  98. Chan MK, Bhatti H, Meader N, Stockton S, Evans J, O'Connor RC, Kapur N, Kendall T . 6 . Predicting suicide following self-harm: systematic review of risk factors and risk scales . The British Journal of Psychiatry . 209 . 4 . 277–283 . October 2016 . 27340111 . 10.1192/bjp.bp.115.170050 . 3428927 . free .
  99. Manthorpe J, Iliffe S . Suicide in later life: public health and practitioner perspectives . International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry . 25 . 12 . 1230–1238 . December 2010 . 20104515 . 10.1002/gps.2473 . 23697880 .
  100. Simpson GK, Tate RL . Preventing suicide after traumatic brain injury: implications for general practice . The Medical Journal of Australia . 187 . 4 . 229–232 . August 2007 . 17708726 . 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2007.tb01206.x . live . 44454339 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110910033458/http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/187_04_200807/sim11240_fm.html . 10 September 2011 .
  101. Anguiano L, Mayer DK, Piven ML, Rosenstein D . A literature review of suicide in cancer patients . Cancer Nursing . 35 . 4 . E14–E26 . Jul–Aug 2012 . 21946906 . 10.1097/NCC.0b013e31822fc76c . 45874503 . free .
  102. Chu L, Elliott M, Stein E, Jason LA . Identifying and Managing Suicidality in Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome . Healthcare . 9 . 6 . May 2021 . 629 . 34070367 . 8227525 . 10.3390/healthcare9060629 . free .
  103. Book: Suicide in Asia : causes and prevention. Yip PS . Hong Kong University Press. 2008. 978-962-209-943-2. Hong Kong. 11.
  104. Ribeiro JD, Pease JL, Gutierrez PM, Silva C, Bernert RA, Rudd MD, Joiner TE . Sleep problems outperform depression and hopelessness as cross-sectional and longitudinal predictors of suicidal ideation and behavior in young adults in the military . Journal of Affective Disorders . 136 . 3 . 743–50 . February 2012 . 22032872 . 10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.049 .
  105. Bernert RA, Joiner TE, Cukrowicz KC, Schmidt NB, Krakow B . Suicidality and sleep disturbances . Sleep . 28 . 9 . 1135–41 . September 2005 . 16268383 . 10.1093/sleep/28.9.1135 . free .
  106. O'Connor RC, Nock MK . The psychology of suicidal behaviour . The Lancet. Psychiatry . 1 . 1 . 73–85 . June 2014 . 26360404 . 10.1016/S2215-0366(14)70222-6 .
  107. Bostwick JM, Rackley SJ . 7093281 . Completed suicide in medical/surgical patients: who is at risk? . Current Psychiatry Reports . 9 . 3 . 242–6 . June 2007 . 17521522 . 10.1007/s11920-007-0026-6 .
  108. Joiner TE, Brown JS, Wingate LR . 42500507 . The psychology and neurobiology of suicidal behavior . Annual Review of Psychology . 56 . 287–314 . 2005 . 15709937 . 10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070320 .
  109. Van Orden K, Conwell Y . Suicides in late life . Current Psychiatry Reports . 13 . 3 . 234–41 . June 2011 . 21369952 . 3085020 . 10.1007/s11920-011-0193-3 .
  110. Turecki G . Polyamines and suicide risk . Molecular Psychiatry . 18 . 12 . 1242–3 . December 2013 . 24166408 . 5293538 . 10.1038/mp.2013.153 .
  111. Nemeroff CB, Owens MJ, Bissette G, Andorn AC, Stanley M . 23574459 . Reduced corticotropin releasing factor binding sites in the frontal cortex of suicide victims . Archives of General Psychiatry . 45 . 6 . 577–9 . June 1988 . 2837159 . 10.1001/archpsyc.1988.01800300075009 .
  112. Stark CR, Riordan V, O'Connor R. 2011. A conceptual model of suicide in rural areas. Rural and Remote Health. 11. 2. 1622. 21702640.
  113. Daly M . Sep 2012. Relative Status and Well-Being: Evidence from U.S. Suicide Deaths. live. Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco, Working Paper Series. 01–52. 10.24148/wp2012-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20121019134902/http://www.frbsf.org/publications/economics/papers/2012/wp12-16bk.pdf. 19 October 2012.
  114. News: Activist: Farmer suicides in India linked to debt, globalization. Lerner G . 5 January 2010. CNN World. 13 February 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130116020225/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-01-05/world/india.farmer.suicides_1_farmer-suicides-andhra-pradesh-vandana-shiva?_s=PM%3AWORLD. 16 January 2013. dead.
  115. Law S, Liu P . 24474367 . Suicide in China: unique demographic patterns and relationship to depressive disorder . Current Psychiatry Reports . 10 . 1 . 80–6 . February 2008 . 18269899 . 10.1007/s11920-008-0014-5 .
  116. Koenig HG . 14523984 . Research on religion, spirituality, and mental health: a review . Canadian Journal of Psychiatry . 54 . 5 . 283–91 . May 2009 . 19497160 . 10.1177/070674370905400502 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20150406183754/http://www.psychology.hku.hk/ftbcstudies/refbase/docs/hill/2003/29_Hill+Pargament2003.pdf . 6 April 2015 . free .
  117. Book: Zuckerman P . Martin M . The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. 2007. Cambridge Univ. Press. 978-0521603676. 58–59. Concerning suicide rates, religious nations fare better than secular nations. According to the 2003 World Health Organization's report on international male suicides rates, of the top ten nations with the highest male suicide rates, all but one (Sri Lanka) are strongly irreligious nations with high levels of atheism. Of the top remaining nine nations leading the world in male suicide rates, all are former Soviet/Communist nations, such as Belarus, Ukraine, and Latvia. Of the bottom ten nations with the lowest male suicide rates, all are highly religious nations with statistically insignificant levels of organic atheism..
  118. Rezaeian M . Suicide among young Middle Eastern Muslim females . Crisis . 31 . 1 . 36–42 . 2010 . 20197256 . 10.1027/0227-5910/a000005 .
  119. Web site: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare . 29 September 2021 . Serving and ex-serving Australian Defence Force members who have served since 1985: suicide monitoring 2001 to 2019 . live . 26 August 2022 . aihw.gov.au . 26 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220826112322/https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/c0338ed6-a0da-4f5a-b503-41abde024230/aihw-phe-290.pdf.aspx .
  120. Web site: Department of National Defence . 11 May 2022 . 2021 Report on Suicide Mortality in the Canadian Armed Forces (1995 to 2020) . live . 30 August 2022 . www.canada.ca . 30 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220830091042/https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/corporate/reports-publications/health/2021-report-on-suicide-mortality-in-the-caf-1995-to-2020.html .
  121. Web site: Simkus K, Hall A, Heber A, VanTil L . 18 June 2020 . Veteran Suicide Mortality Study: Follow-up period from 1976 to 2014 . live . 30 August 2022 . Ottawa, ON . Veterans Affairs Canada . 30 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220830104419/https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/about-vac/research/research-directorate/publications/reports/veteran-suicide-mortality-study-2019 .
  122. Web site: US Department of Veterans Affairs (Office of Mental Health and Suicide Prevention) . September 2021 . 2001-2019 National Suicide Data Appendix . 30 August 2022 . va.gov.
  123. Kapur N, While D, Blatchley N, Bray I, Harrison K . Suicide after leaving the UK armed forces--a cohort study . PLOS Medicine . 6 . 3 . e26 . March 2009 . 19260757 . 2650723 . 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000026 . Hotopf M . free .
  124. Jones M, Jones N, Burdett H, Bergman BP, Fear NT, Wessely S, Rona RJ . Do Junior Entrants to the UK Armed Forces have worse outcomes than Standard Entrants? . BMJ Military Health . April 2021 . 169 . 3 . 218–224 . 33879526 . 10.1136/bmjmilitary-2021-001787 . 233313427 . 8 September 2022 . 8 October 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221008164347/http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/239172/1/239172.pdf . dead .
  125. Rozanov V, Carli V . July 2012 . Suicide among war veterans . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 9 . 7 . 2504–19 . 10.3390/ijerph9072504 . 3407917 . 22851956 . free.
  126. Bohanna I, Wang X . 1262883 . Media guidelines for the responsible reporting of suicide: a review of effectiveness . Crisis . 33 . 4 . 190–8 . 2012 . 22713977 . 10.1027/0227-5910/a000137 .
  127. Book: Crisis intervention strategies . Gilliland B, James R . 8 May 2012 . Brooks/Cole . 978-1-111-18677-7 . 7th . Belmont, CA . 215 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151003151518/https://books.google.com/books?id=E2sKf-sexZwC&pg=PA215 . 3 October 2015 . live.
  128. Exeter DJ, Boyle PJ . Does young adult suicide cluster geographically in Scotland? . Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health . 61 . 8 . 731–6 . August 2007 . 17630375 . 2653005 . 10.1136/jech.2006.052365 .
  129. Gould MS, Wallenstein S, Davidson L . Suicide clusters: a critical review . Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior . 19 . 1 . 17–29 . 1989 . 2652386 . 10.1111/j.1943-278X.1989.tb00363.x .
  130. Stack S . 21353878 . Suicide in the media: a quantitative review of studies based on non-fictional stories . Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior . 35 . 2 . 121–33 . April 2005 . 15843330 . 10.1521/suli.35.2.121.62877 .
  131. Pirkis J . Suicide and the media. Psychiatry . 8 . 7 . 269–71 . July 2009 . 10.1016/j.mppsy.2009.04.009.
  132. Book: Shrivastava A, Kimbrell M, Lester D . Suicide from a global perspective : psychosocial approaches. 2012. Nova Science Publishers. New York. 978-1-61470-965-7. 115–18.
  133. Mok K, Jorm AF, Pirkis J . 26744237 . Suicide-related Internet use: A review . The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry . 49 . 8 . 697–705 . August 2015 . 25698810 . 10.1177/0004867415569797 . 11343/58519 . free .
  134. Sisask M, Värnik A . Media roles in suicide prevention: a systematic review . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 9 . 1 . 123–38 . January 2012 . 22470283 . 3315075 . 10.3390/ijerph9010123 . free .
  135. Scalvini M, Rigamonti F . 22599053 . Why we must defend suicide in fiction . BMJ . 359 . j4743 . October 2017 . 29046321 . 10.1136/bmj.j4743 .
  136. Scalvini M . 18 June 2020. 13 Reasons Why : can a TV show about suicide be 'dangerous'? What are the moral obligations of a producer?. Media, Culture & Society. 42. 7–8. 1564–1574. 10.1177/0163443720932502. 0163-4437. free.
  137. Cornelius . Sarah L. . Berry . Tara . Goodrich . Amanda J. . Shiner . Brian . Riblet . Natalie B. . 2021-07-23 . The Effect of Meteorological, Pollution, and Geographic Exposures on Death by Suicide: A Scoping Review . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 18 . 15 . 7809 . 10.3390/ijerph18157809 . free . 1660-4601 . 8345465 . 34360101.
  138. Go . Tae-Hwa . Kim . Min-Hyuk . Choi . Yoon-Young . Han . Jaehyun . Kim . Changsoo . Kang . Dae Ryong . The short-term effect of ambient particulate matter on suicide death . Environmental Health . Springer Science and Business Media LLC . 23 . 1 . 3 Jan 2024 . 3 . 1476-069X . 10.1186/s12940-023-01042-2 . free . 38169380 . meta-analysis. 10763266 . 2024EnvHe..23....3G .
  139. Braithwaite I, Zhang S, Kirkbride JB, Osborn DP, Hayes JF . December 2019 . Air Pollution (Particulate Matter) Exposure and Associations with Depression, Anxiety, Bipolar, Psychosis and Suicide Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis . Environmental Health Perspectives . 127 . 12 . 126002 . 10.1289/EHP4595 . 6957283 . 31850801.
  140. Carley S, Hamilton M . November 2004 . Best evidence topic report. Suicide at christmas . Emergency Medicine Journal . 21 . 6 . 716–7 . 10.1136/emj.2004.019703 . 1726490 . 15496706.
  141. 6 . Williams A, While D, Windfuhr K, Bickley H, Hunt IM, Shaw J, Appleby L, Kapur N . 2011 . Birthday blues: examining the association between birthday and suicide in a national sample . Crisis . 32 . 3 . 134–42 . 10.1027/0227-5910/a000067 . 21616762.
  142. Confer JC, Easton JA, Fleischman DS, Goetz CD, Lewis DM, Perilloux C, Buss DM . 1 January 2010 . Evolutionary psychology. Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations . The American Psychologist . 65 . 2 . 110–26 . 10.1.1.601.8691 . 10.1037/a0018413 . 20141266.
  143. Ports KA, Merrick MT, Stone DM, Wilkins NJ, Reed J, Ebin J, Ford DC . Adverse Childhood Experiences and Suicide Risk: Toward Comprehensive Prevention . American Journal of Preventive Medicine . 53 . 3 . 400–403 . September 2017 . 28483301 . 5603224 . 10.1016/j.amepre.2017.03.015 .
  144. Cox WT, Abramson LY, Devine PG, Hollon SD . 1512121 . Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective . Perspectives on Psychological Science . 7 . 5 . 427–49 . September 2012 . 26168502 . 10.1177/1745691612455204 .
  145. Wegman HL, Stetler C . 25054003 . A meta-analytic review of the effects of childhood abuse on medical outcomes in adulthood . Psychosomatic Medicine . 71 . 8 . 805–12 . October 2009 . 19779142 . 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181bb2b46 .
  146. Oswald SH, Heil K, Goldbeck L . History of maltreatment and mental health problems in foster children: a review of the literature . Journal of Pediatric Psychology . 35 . 5 . 462–72 . June 2010 . 20007747 . 10.1093/jpepsy/jsp114 . free .
  147. Sahle BW, Reavley NJ, Li W, Morgan AJ, Yap MB, Reupert A, Jorm AF . The association between adverse childhood experiences and common mental disorders and suicidality: an umbrella review of systematic reviews and meta-analyses . Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry . 31 . 10 . 1489–1499 . October 2022 . 33638709 . 10.1007/s00787-021-01745-2 . 232065964 .
  148. Book: Pallanti S, Rossi NB, Hollander E . 11. Pathological Gambling . Hollander E, Stein DJ . Clinical manual of impulse-control disorders . https://books.google.com/books?id=u2wVP8KJJtcC&pg=PA253 . 2006 . American Psychiatric Pub . 978-1-58562-136-1 . 253 .
  149. Oliveira MP, Silveira DX, Silva MT . [Pathological gambling and its consequences for public health] . Revista de Saude Publica . 42 . 3 . 542–9 . June 2008 . 18461253 . 10.1590/S0034-89102008005000026 . free .
  150. Hansen M, Rossow I . [Gambling and suicidal behaviour] . Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening . 128 . 2 . 174–6 . January 2008 . 18202728 .
  151. Book: Loue S . Encyclopedia of aging and public health : with 19 tables. 2008. Springer. New York. 978-0-387-33753-1. 696.
  152. Conejero I, Olié E, Courtet P, Calati R . Suicide in older adults: current perspectives . Clinical Interventions in Aging . 13 . 691–699 . 2018 . 29719381 . 5916258 . 10.2147/CIA.S130670 . free .
  153. Calabrò RS, Naro A, De Luca R, Russo M, Caccamo L, Manuli A, Bramanti A, Bramanti P . 6 . The Right to Die in Chronic Disorders of Consciousness: Can We Avoid the Slippery Slope Argument? . Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience . 13 . 11–12 . 12–24 . 2016 . 28210521 . 5300707 .
  154. Book: Moody HR . Aging: concepts and controversies. 2010. Pine Forge Press. Los Angeles. 978-1-4129-6966-6 . 158 . 6th.
  155. Book: Sobh T . Innovations and advances in computer sciences and engineering. 2010. Springer Verlag. Dordrecht. 978-90-481-3658-2. 503. Online-Ausg. .
  156. Book: Hales RE, Simon RI . The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of suicide assessment and management. American Psychiatric Pub.. Washington, DC. 978-1-58562-414-0. 714. 2nd. 2012 .
  157. Eliason S . Murder-suicide: a review of the recent literature . The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law . 37 . 3 . 371–6 . 2009 . 19767502 .
  158. Book: Kornblum W, Smith CD . Sociology in a changing world. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Belmont, CA. 978-1-111-30157-6 . 27. 9th. 31 January 2011 .
  159. Book: Campbell RJ . Campbell's psychiatric dictionary. 2004. Oxford University Press. Oxford. 978-0-19-515221-0. 636. 8th .
  160. Book: Veatch RM . Medical ethics. 1997. Jones and Bartlett. Sudbury, MA. 978-0-86720-974-7. 292. 2nd .
  161. Book: Warburton N . 2004 . 21. The Basics - Philosophy. 4th. Routledge. New York. 978-0-415-32773-2.
  162. Book: Gutman Y, Berenbaum M . Anatomy of the Auschwitz death camp. 1998. Publ. in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C. by Indiana University Press. Bloomington. 978-0-253-20884-2. 400. 1st .
  163. Bruffaerts R, Demyttenaere K, Hwang I, Chiu WT, Sampson N, Kessler RC, Alonso J, Borges G, de Girolamo G, de Graaf R, Florescu S, Gureje O, Hu C, Karam EG, Kawakami N, Kostyuchenko S, Kovess-Masfety V, Lee S, Levinson D, Matschinger H, Posada-Villa J, Sagar R, Scott KM, Stein DJ, Tomov T, Viana MC, Nock MK . 6 . Treatment of suicidal people around the world . The British Journal of Psychiatry . 199 . 1 . 64–70 . July 2011 . 21263012 . 3167419 . 10.1192/bjp.bp.110.084129 .
  164. Web site: Suicide prevention . World Health Organization . 31 August 2012 . WHO Sites: Mental Health . http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20040701084208/http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/suicideprevent/en/ . dead . 1 July 2004 . 13 January 2013 .
  165. Miller M, Hemenway D . 35738851 . Guns and suicide in the United States . The New England Journal of Medicine . 359 . 10 . 989–91 . September 2008 . 18768940 . 10.1056/NEJMp0805923. free .
  166. Cox GR, Owens C, Robinson J, Nicholas A, Lockley A, Williamson M, Cheung YT, Pirkis J . 6 . Interventions to reduce suicides at suicide hotspots: a systematic review . BMC Public Health . 13 . 214 . March 2013 . 23496989 . 3606606 . 10.1186/1471-2458-13-214 . free .
  167. Vijayakumar L, Kumar MS, Vijayakumar V . 206143129 . Substance use and suicide . Current Opinion in Psychiatry . 24 . 3 . 197–202 . May 2011 . 21430536 . 10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283459242 .
  168. Robinson J, Hetrick SE, Martin C . 24708914 . Preventing suicide in young people: systematic review . The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry . 45 . 1 . 3–26 . January 2011 . 21174502 . 10.3109/00048674.2010.511147 .
  169. Fässberg MM, van Orden KA, Duberstein P, Erlangsen A, Lapierre S, Bodner E, Canetto SS, De Leo D, Szanto K, Waern M . 6 . A systematic review of social factors and suicidal behavior in older adulthood . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 9 . 3 . 722–45 . March 2012 . 22690159 . 3367273 . 10.3390/ijerph9030722 . free .
  170. Luxton DD, June JD, Comtois KA . 25181980 . Can postdischarge follow-up contacts prevent suicide and suicidal behavior? A review of the evidence . Crisis . 34 . 1 . 32–41 . January 2013 . 22846445 . 10.1027/0227-5910/a000158 .
  171. Web site: World Suicide Prevention Day −10 September, 2013. IASP. 29 October 2013. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20131104145146/http://www.iasp.info/wspd/. 4 November 2013.
  172. Book: Barlow . David H. . Durand . Vincent Mark . Abnormal Psychology . Wadsworth Publishing Company . 2005 . 248–249 . 978-0-534-63356-1 .
  173. Bachmann S . Epidemiology of Suicide and the Psychiatric Perspective . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 6 July 2018 . 15 . 7 . 1425 . 10.3390/ijerph15071425 . 29986446. 6068947 . Half of all completed suicides are related to depressive and other mood disorders. free .
  174. Lopresti AL, Hood SD, Drummond PD . A review of lifestyle factors that contribute to important pathways associated with major depression: diet, sleep and exercise . Journal of Affective Disorders . 148 . 1 . 12–27 . May 2013 . 23415826 . 10.1016/j.jad.2013.01.014 . 22218602 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170109183840/http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/13504/1/A_review_of_lifestyle_factors_that_contribute_to_important_pathways_associated_with_major_depression-final_manuscript1.pdf . 9 January 2017 .
  175. Wu Y, Zhang L, Li S, Zhang D . Associations of dietary vitamin B1, vitamin B2, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12 with the risk of depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis . Nutrition Reviews . Oxford University Press (OUP) . 29 April 2021 . 80 . 3 . 351–366 . 0029-6643 . 10.1093/nutrit/nuab014 . 33912967 .
  176. Web site: Food, drink and mental health . healthdirect . 25 Aug 2023.
  177. Web site: How to Boost Mental Health Through Better Nutrition . Psychiatry.org . 18 Apr 2023 . 25 May 2024.
  178. Williams SB, O'Connor EA, Eder M, Whitlock EP . 8881023 . Screening for child and adolescent depression in primary care settings: a systematic evidence review for the US Preventive Services Task Force . Pediatrics . 123 . 4 . e716-35 . April 2009 . 19336361 . 10.1542/peds.2008-2415 .
  179. LeFevre ML . Screening for suicide risk in adolescents, adults, and older adults in primary care: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement . Annals of Internal Medicine . 160 . 10 . 719–26 . May 2014 . 24842417 . 10.7326/M14-0589 . free .
  180. Book: Clinard MB, Meier RF . Marshall B. Clinard . Sociology of deviant behavior. 2008. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Belmont, CA. 978-0-495-81167-1. 169. 14th .
  181. Horowitz LM, Ballard ED, Pao M . Suicide screening in schools, primary care and emergency departments . Current Opinion in Pediatrics . 21 . 5 . 620–7 . October 2009 . 19617829 . 2879582 . 10.1097/MOP.0b013e3283307a89 .
  182. Book: Tintinalli, Judith E. . Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide (Emergency Medicine (Tintinalli)) . McGraw-Hill Companies . New York . 2010 . 1940–46. 978-0-07-148480-0 .
  183. Paris J . 28921269 . Is hospitalization useful for suicidal patients with borderline personality disorder? . Journal of Personality Disorders . 18 . 3 . 240–7 . June 2004 . 15237044 . 10.1521/pedi.18.3.240.35443 .
  184. Goodman M, Roiff T, Oakes AH, Paris J . 7261201 . Suicidal risk and management in borderline personality disorder . Current Psychiatry Reports . 14 . 1 . 79–85 . February 2012 . 22113831 . 10.1007/s11920-011-0249-4 .
  185. Dialectical behaviour therapy in adolescents for suicide prevention: systematic review of clinical-effectiveness . CADTH Technology Overviews . 1 . 1 . e0104 . 2010 . 22977392 . 3411135 . Canadian Agency for Drugs Technologies in Health (CADTH) .
  186. Stoffers JM, Völlm BA, Rücker G, Timmer A, Huband N, Lieb K . Psychological therapies for people with borderline personality disorder . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 8 . 8 . CD005652 . August 2012 . 22895952 . 6481907 . 10.1002/14651858.CD005652.pub2 . Lieb K .
  187. O'Connor E, Gaynes BN, Burda BU, Soh C, Whitlock EP . Screening for and treatment of suicide risk relevant to primary care: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force . Annals of Internal Medicine . 158 . 10 . 741–54 . May 2013 . 23609101 . 10.7326/0003-4819-158-10-201305210-00642 . free .
  188. Hetrick SE, McKenzie JE, Cox GR, Simmons MB, Merry SN . Newer generation antidepressants for depressive disorders in children and adolescents . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 11 . CD004851 . November 2012 . 9 . 23152227 . 10.1002/14651858.CD004851.pub3 . 8786271 . Hetrick SE . 11343/59246 . free .
  189. Baldessarini RJ, Tondo L, Hennen J . Lithium treatment and suicide risk in major affective disorders: update and new findings . The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry . 64 . Suppl 5 . 44–52 . 2003 . 12720484 .
  190. Cipriani A, Hawton K, Stockton S, Geddes JR . Lithium in the prevention of suicide in mood disorders: updated systematic review and meta-analysis . BMJ . 346 . jun27 4 . f3646 . June 2013 . 23814104 . 10.1136/bmj.f3646 . free .
  191. Wagstaff A, Perry C . Clozapine: in prevention of suicide in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder . CNS Drugs . 17 . 4 . 273–80; discussion 281–3 . 2003 . 12665398 . 10.2165/00023210-200317040-00004 .
  192. Rajkumar R, Fam J, Yeo EY, Dawe GS . Ketamine and suicidal ideation in depression: Jumping the gun? . Pharmacological Research . 99 . 23–35 . September 2015 . 25982932 . 10.1016/j.phrs.2015.05.003 .
  193. News: Caldwell BE . Whose Conscience Matters?. 22 January 2018. Family Therapy Magazine (page 22). American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy (AAMFT). September–October 2013. 22 January 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180122235109/https://www.aamft.org/imis15/Documents/SO13FTMSinglePage.pdf. dead.
  194. Bellah v. Greenson. California First District Court of Appeals. Findlaw. 22 January 2018. 6 June 1978.
  195. Luxton. David D.. Thomas. Elissa K.. Chipps. Joan. Relova. Rona M.. Brown. Daphne. McLay. Robert. Lee. Tina T.. Nakama. Helenna. Smolenski. Derek J.. March 2014. Caring letters for suicide prevention: implementation of a multi-site randomized clinical trial in the U.S. military and Veteran Affairs healthcare systems. Contemporary Clinical Trials. 37. 2. 252–260. 10.1016/j.cct.2014.01.007. 1559-2030. 24473106.
  196. Book: Nock, Matthew K.. The Oxford Handbook of Suicide and Self-Injury. 2014-05-08. Oxford University Press. 9780190209148. 375. en.
  197. News: Cherkis . Jason . 15 November 2018 . The Best Way To Save People From Suicide . 2018-11-29 . The Huffington Post.
  198. Ajdacic-Gross V, Weiss MG, Ring M, Hepp U, Bopp M, Gutzwiller F, Rössler W . Methods of suicide: international suicide patterns derived from the WHO mortality database . Bulletin of the World Health Organization . 86 . 9 . 726–32 . September 2008 . 18797649 . 2649482 . 10.2471/BLT.07.043489 .
  199. Book: O'Connor RC, Platt S, Gordon J . International Handbook of Suicide Prevention: Research, Policy and Practice . 1 June 2011 . John Wiley and Sons . 978-1-119-99856-3 . 34 .
  200. Gunnell D, Eddleston M, Phillips MR, Konradsen F . The global distribution of fatal pesticide self-poisoning: systematic review . BMC Public Health . 7 . 357 . December 2007 . 18154668 . 2262093 . 10.1186/1471-2458-7-357 . free .
  201. Book: Geddes J, Price J, McKnight R, Gelder M, Mayou R . Psychiatry. Oxford University Press. Oxford. 978-0-19-923396-0. 62. 4th. 5 January 2012 .
  202. Book: Krug E . World Report on Violence and Health . 1 . 2002. World Health Organization. Genève. 978-92-4-154561-7. 196.
  203. Yoshioka E, Hanley SJ, Kawanishi Y, Saijo Y . Time trends in method-specific suicide rates in Japan, 1990–2011 . Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences . 25 . 1 . 58–68 . February 2016 . 25373686 . 10.1017/S2045796014000675 . 6998669 .
  204. Reisch T, Steffen T, Habenstein A, Tschacher W . Wolfgang Tschacher . 8405876 . Change in suicide rates in Switzerland before and after firearm restriction resulting from the 2003 "Army XXI" reform . The American Journal of Psychiatry . 170 . 9 . 977–84 . September 2013 . 23897090 . 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12091256 .
  205. Book: Eshun S, Gurung RA . Culture and mental health sociocultural influences, theory, and practice. 2009. Wiley-Blackwell. Chichester. 978-1-4443-0581-4. 301. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20151003161655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6uUDBBGqF4C&pg=PA301. 3 October 2015.
  206. Web site: Suicide – Mental Health Statistics. April 2019. National Institute of Mental Health. 15 October 2019.
  207. Web site: Deaths estimates for 2008 by cause for WHO Member States. World Health Organization. 10 February 2013. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20091111101009/http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_country/en/index.html. 11 November 2009.
  208. Web site: Suicide rates Data by country. who.int. 23 November 2014. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20151015120314/http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.MHSUICIDE?lang=en.. 15 October 2015.
  209. News: . 7 June 2018 . Suicide rates rising across the U.S.. CDC Newsroom . 11 October 2018.
  210. News: . August 10, 2023 . Suicides in the U.S. reached all-time high in 2022, CDC data shows. . August 11, 2023.
  211. Web site: CDC finds suicide rates among middle-aged adults increased from 1999 to 2010. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 15 July 2013. 2 May 2013. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20130621045612/http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0502-suicide-rates.html. 21 June 2013.
  212. Web site: میزان خودکشی در ایران طی یک دهه گذشته، بیش از ۴۰درصد رشد کرده . etemadonline.com . Persian . 28 December 2023.
  213. Web site: Estimates for 2000–2012. WHO. 24 August 2016.
  214. Book: Stern TA, Fava M, Wilens TE, Rosenbaum JF . Massachusetts General Hospital Comprehensive Clinical Psychiatry. 2015. Elsevier Health Sciences. 978-0-323-32899-9. 589. 2. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160914014509/https://books.google.com/books?id=y5nTBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA589. 14 September 2016.
  215. Book: Krug EG . World Report on Violence and Health. 2002. World Health Organization. 978-92-4-154561-7. 191. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160914020823/https://books.google.com/books?id=db9OHpk-TksC&pg=PA191. 14 September 2016.
  216. Book: Sue D, Sue DW, Sue S, Sue D . Understanding abnormal behavior. Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. Belmont, CA. 978-1-111-83459-3. 255. Tenth [student] . 1 January 2012. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20151030225833/https://books.google.com/books?id=mTs--Kt-9a0C&pg=PA255. 30 October 2015. Derald Wing Sue .
  217. Book: Osváth P, Voros V, Fekete SA . Gender Issues in Suicide Risk Assessment . Kumar U, Mandal MK . Suicidal Behaviour: Assessment of People-At-Risk. 978-81-321-0499-5. SAGE Publications India. 2010. 139. 4 March 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=W5WHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA139 .
  218. Book: Ellis L, Hershberger S, Pellis S, Field E, Wersinger S, Pellis S, Geary D, Palmer C, Hoyenga K, Hetsroni A, Karadi K . Sex Differences: Summarizing More than a Century of Scientific Research. 978-1-136-87493-2. Psychology Press. 2013. 387. 4 March 2017. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170305152038/https://books.google.com/books?id=Skw2mezpvO4C&pg=PA387. 5 March 2017.
  219. Web site: Suicide Statistics. American Foundation for Suicide Prevention (AFSP). 3 September 2016. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160902201450/https://afsp.org/about-suicide/suicide-statistics/. 2 September 2016. 16 February 2016.
  220. Weiyuan C . Women and suicide in rural China . Bulletin of the World Health Organization . 87 . 12 . 888–9 . December 2009 . 20454475 . 2789367 . 10.2471/BLT.09.011209 .
  221. Haas AP, Eliason M, Mays VM, Mathy RM, Cochran SD, D'Augelli AR, Silverman MM, Fisher PW, Hughes T, Rosario M, Russell ST, Malley E, Reed J, Litts DA, Haller E, Sell RL, Remafedi G, Bradford J, Beautrais AL, Brown GK, Diamond GM, Friedman MS, Garofalo R, Turner MS, Hollibaugh A, Clayton PJ . 6 . Suicide and suicide risk in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender populations: review and recommendations . Journal of Homosexuality . 58 . 1 . 10–51 . 2011 . 21213174 . 3662085 . 10.1080/00918369.2011.534038 .
  222. Web site: Suicide Attempts among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults. 28 April 2018. Jan 2014.
  223. Williams A . Risk factors for suicide in the transgender community. European Psychiatry. April 2017. 41. S894. 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.01.1820. 149086762.
  224. Virupaksha HG, Muralidhar D, Ramakrishna J . Suicide and Suicidal Behavior among Transgender Persons . Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine . 38 . 6 . 505–509 . 2016 . 28031583 . 5178031 . 10.4103/0253-7176.194908 . free .
  225. Web site: Reports. 25 July 2016. 2011. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20140908030754/http://www.thetaskforce.org/downloads/reports/reports/ntds_full.pdf. 8 September 2014.
  226. Pitman A, Krysinska K, Osborn D, King M . 193711 . Suicide in young men . Lancet . 379 . 9834 . 2383–92 . June 2012 . 22726519 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60731-4 .
  227. Web site: Summary tables of mortality estimates by cause, age and sex, globally and by region, 2000–2016 . World Health Organization . 21 December 2018 . 2018.
  228. Glenn CR, Kleiman EM, Kellerman J, Pollak O, Cha CB, Esposito EC, Porter AC, Wyman PA, Boatman AE . 6 . Annual Research Review: A meta-analytic review of worldwide suicide rates in adolescents . Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines . 61 . 3 . 294–308 . March 2020 . 31373003 . 10.1111/jcpp.13106 . 199380438 .
  229. Hawton K, Saunders KE, O'Connor RC . 151486181 . Self-harm and suicide in adolescents . Lancet . 379 . 9834 . 2373–82 . June 2012 . 22726518 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60322-5 .
  230. Book: Fatal freedom : the ethics and politics of suicide. registration. Szasz T . Praeger. 1999. 978-0-275-96646-1. Westport, CT. 11.
  231. Book: Battin, M. Pabst . The ethics of suicide: historical sources . 2015 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-938580-5 . Oxford; New York . 2.
  232. Naiden . F. S. . May 2015 . The Sword Did It: A Greek Explanation for Suicide . The Classical Quarterly . en . 65 . 1 . 85–95 . 10.1017/S0009838814000858 . 0009-8388.
  233. Book: Dickinson MR, Leming GE . Understanding dying, death, and bereavement. Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Belmont, CA. 978-0-495-81018-6. 290. 7th. 2 September 2010 .
  234. Book: Pickering WS, Walford G . Durkheim's Suicide : a century of research and debate. 2000. Routledge. London. 978-0-415-20582-5. 69. 1. publ.. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20160402063717/https://books.google.com/books?id=9KQO6dGY1cwC&pg=PA69. 2 April 2016.
  235. Book: Maris R . Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. 2000. Guilford Press. New York. 978-1-57230-541-0. 540.
  236. Book: Suicide . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2017 .
  237. Book: Reed P . Exploring the Philosophy of Death and Dying: Classical and Contemporary Perspectives. 30 December 2020. Routledge. 978-1-000-21674-5. Timmerman T, Cholbi M . en. Suicide and its Discontents.
  238. Book: A Companion to the Eighteenth-Century English Novel and Culture. Backscheider PR, Ingrassia C . 2008 . John Wiley & Sons . 530. 978-1-4051-5450-5.
  239. Book: Paperno I . Suicide as a cultural institution in Dostoevsky's Russia. 1997. Cornell university press. Ithaca. 978-0-8014-8425-4. 60. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20150928063739/https://books.google.com/books?id=m3pqf8f-6bMC&pg=PA60. 28 September 2015.
  240. Book: Life, Death and the Law: Law and Christian Morals in England and the United States. St John-Stevas N . 2002. Beard Books. 233. 978-1-58798-113-5.
  241. Book: Minois G . History of Suicide: Voluntary Death in Western Culture. 2001. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore. 978-0-8018-6647-0. Johns Hopkins University.
  242. Book: Smith . John C. . Smith & Hogan's criminal law . Hogan . Brian . Ormerod . David C. . Ormerod . David . Oxford Univ. Press . 2011 . 978-0-19-958649-3 . 13th . Oxford . 583.
  243. Book: Suicide-related behaviour understanding, caring and therapeutic responses. McLaughlin C . John Wiley & Sons. 2007. 978-0-470-51241-8. Chichester. 24.
  244. News: Dutch 'mercy killing law' passed. 11 April 2001. 27 February 2019.
  245. News: German politician Roger Kusch helped elderly woman to die. 2 July 2008. Times Online. https://web.archive.org/web/20100601051855/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article4251894.ece. 1 June 2010. live.
  246. Appel JM . 28038414 . A suicide right for the mentally ill? A Swiss case opens a new debate . The Hastings Center Report . 37 . 3 . 21–3 . May 2007 . 17649899 . 10.1353/hcr.2007.0035 .
  247. Holt, Gerry."When suicide was illegal" . BBC News. 3 August 2011. Accessed 11 August 2011.
  248. News: Guardian & Observer style guide. Guardian website. The Guardian. 29 November 2011. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20131019070418/http://www.theguardian.com/styleguide/s. 19 October 2013. 31 December 2015.
  249. News: Chapter 70.245 RCW, The Washington death with dignity act. Washington State Legislature. https://web.archive.org/web/20100708000006/http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=70.245. 8 July 2010. live.
  250. Web site: Oregon Revised Statute – 127.800 s.1.01. Definitions. Oregon State Legislature. https://web.archive.org/web/20151007062220/http://public.health.oregon.gov/ProviderPartnerResources/EvaluationResearch/DeathwithDignityAct/Pages/ors.aspx. 7 October 2015. live.
  251. Web site: CBCNews.ca Mobile. 1 February 1999. Cbc.ca. https://web.archive.org/web/20140807054409/http://www.cbc.ca/m/news/#!/content/1.1034903. 7 August 2014. live. 6 August 2014.
  252. Web site: US border suicide profiling must stop: Report. Adams C . 15 April 2014. globalnews.ca. https://web.archive.org/web/20140808055456/http://globalnews.ca/news/1271798/us-border-suicide-profiling-must-stop-report/. 8 August 2014. live. 7 August 2014.
  253. Book: Lanham D, Bartal BF, Evans RC, Wood D . Criminal laws in Australia. 2006. The Federation Press. Annandale, N.S.W. . 978-1-86287-558-6 . 229.
  254. Book: Costa M, Duffy M . Labor, prosperity and the nineties : beyond the bonsai economy. 1991. Federation Press. Sydney. 978-1-86287-060-4. 315. 2nd .
  255. Book: Hospice or hemlock? : searching for heroic compassion. Putnam CE . Praeger. 2002. 978-0-89789-921-5. Westport, CT. 143 .
  256. Book: Dogra M, Srivastava S . Climate change and disease dynamics in India. The Energy and Resources Institute. New Delhi. 978-81-7993-412-8. 256. 1 January 2012. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20150928054921/https://books.google.com/books?id=UGrUgX-nKTIC&pg=PA256. 28 September 2015.
  257. News: Govt decides to repeal Section 309 from IPC; attempt to suicide no longer a crime. Zee News. 10 December 2014. 10 December 2014. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20150515222001/http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/govt-decides-to-repeal-section-309-from-ipc-attempt-to-suicide-no-longer-a-crime_1512479.html. 15 May 2015.
  258. Web site: Why so long to decriminalise suicide, says Befrienders. 19 June 2022. Free Malaysia Today.
  259. Web site: Decision on decriminalising suicide attempts in Malaysia lie with cabinet: Khairy. 28 September 2022. Channel News Asia.
  260. Web site: Malaysia's Pathway to the Decriminalisation of Suicides: Students' Opinion and Discussions (pdf). 27 December 2020. academia.edu.
  261. Web site: As decriminalisation nears, a brief look at how suicide became a crime in Malaysia. 7 April 2023. Malay Mail.
  262. Web site: Zitser . Joshua . Kim Jong Un orders North Koreans to stop killing themselves after number of suicides skyrocketed . 2023-06-12 . Business Insider . en-US.
  263. Web site: Roth R . Suicide & Euthanasia – a Biblical Perspective . Acu-cell.com . 6 May 2009 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090418073913/http://acu-cell.com/suicide.html . 18 April 2009 .
  264. Web site: Norman N. Holland, Literary Suicides: A Question of Style . Clas.ufl.edu . 6 May 2009 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20090528090133/http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/nholland/suicide.htm. 28 May 2009.
  265. Web site: Is suicide a sin?. 14 April 2022. 28 October 2014 .
  266. Web site: Catechism of the Catholic Church – Part 3 Section 2 Chapter 2 Article 5 . Scborromeo.org . 1 June 1941 . 6 May 2009 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20090425163428/http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a5.htm#2280 . 25 April 2009 .
  267. Web site: Catechism of the Catholic Church – Part 3 Section 2 Chapter 2 Article 5 . Scborromeo.org . 1 June 1941 . 6 May 2009 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20090425163428/http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p3s2c2a5.htm#2282 . 25 April 2009 .
  268. Web site: Euthanasia and Judaism: Jewish Views of Euthanasia and Suicide . 16 September 2008 . ReligionFacts.com . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20060506200930/http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/judaism.htm . 6 May 2006 .
  269. Web site: Surah An-Nisa - 29 . 2023-02-25 . Quran.com . en.
  270. Gearing RE, Lizardi D . 30494312 . Religion and suicide . Journal of Religion and Health . 48 . 3 . 332–41 . September 2009 . 19639421 . 10.1007/s10943-008-9181-2 .
  271. Hindu Website. Hinduism and suicide
  272. Web site: Hinduism – Euthanasia and Suicide. 25 August 2009. BBC. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20090225155507/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/hinduethics/euthanasia.shtml. 25 February 2009.
  273. News: India wife dies on husband's pyre . 30 June 2019 . 22 August 2006.
  274. Takako Yamada: The Worldview of the Ainu. Nature and Cosmos Reading from Language, p. 25–37, p. 123.
  275. Norbert Richard Adami: Religion und Schaminismus der Ainu auf Sachalin (Karafuto), Bonn 1989, p. 45.
  276. Adami: Religion und Schaminismus der Ainu auf Sachalin (Karafuto), p. 79, p. 119.
  277. Book: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/suicide/ . Suicide (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) . Plato.stanford.edu . 6 May 2009. Suicide . 2017 .
  278. Kant, Immanuel. (1785) Kant: The Metaphysics of Morals, M. Gregor (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. . p. 177.
  279. Safranek John P . 1998 . Autonomy and Assisted Suicide: The Execution of Freedom . The Hastings Center Report . 28 . 4. 32–36 . 10.2307/3528611 . 3528611 . 9762538 .
  280. Book: Whiting R . A natural right to die: twenty-three centuries of debate . 13–17 . Praeger . 2001 . 0-313-31474-8 .
  281. Wesley J. Smith . Smith WJ . Death on Demand: The assisted-suicide movement sheds its fig leaf . NRL News . August 2007 . 34 . 8 . 18 . 25 July 2020 . 16 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210416021221/https://www.nrlc.org/archive/news/2007/NRL08/Smith.html . dead .
  282. Ozawa-de Silva C . Too lonely to die alone: internet suicide pacts and existential suffering in Japan . Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry . 32 . 4 . 516–51 . December 2008 . 18800195 . 10.1007/s11013-008-9108-0 . 145475668 .
  283. Luxton . David D. . June . Jennifer D. . Fairall . Jonathan M. . May 2012 . Social Media and Suicide: A Public Health Perspective . American Journal of Public Health . 102 . Suppl 2 . S195–S200 . 10.2105/AJPH.2011.300608 . 0090-0036 . 3477910 . 22401525.
  284. Durkee T, Hadlaczky G, Westerlund M, Carli V . Internet pathways in suicidality: a review of the evidence . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 8 . 10 . 3938–52 . October 2011 . 22073021 . 3210590 . 10.3390/ijerph8103938 . free .
  285. Web site: A voice of reason on Yangtze bridge. The National. 8 July 2008. en. 16 October 2019.
  286. Book: Robinson P, Heitmann S, Dieke PU . Research themes for tourism. 2010. CABI. Oxfordshire [etc.]. 978-1-84593-684-6. 172.
  287. Book: Picard D, Robinson M . Emotion in motion : tourism, affect and transformation. Ashgate. Farnham, Surrey. 978-1-4094-2133-7 . 176. 28 November 2012 .
  288. Book: Dennis R . Cities in modernity : representations and productions of metropolitan space, 1840–1930. 2008. Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge [u.a.]. 978-0-521-46841-1. 20. Repr. .
  289. Book: McDougall T, Armstrong M, Trainor G . Helping children and young people who self-harm: an introduction to self-harming and suicidal behaviours for health professionals. 2010. Routledge. Abingdon, Oxon. 978-0-415-49913-2. 23.
  290. Book: Building hope : leadership in the nonprofit world. registration. Bateson J . Praeger. 2008. 978-0-313-34851-8. Westport, CT. 180.
  291. Book: Miller D . Child and Adolescent Suicidal Behavior: School-Based Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention. 2011. 978-1-60623-997-1. 46. Guilford Press .
  292. Hall 1987, p.282
  293. Web site: Alternative Considerations of Jonestown and Peoples Temple . San Diego State University . 10 November 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110220005202/http://jonestown.sdsu.edu/AboutJonestown/Tapes/Tapes/DeathTape/death.html . 20 February 2011 .
  294. "1978:Mass Suicide Leaves 900 Dead ". Retrieved 9 November 2011.
  295. [John Toland (author)|John Toland]
  296. 3750951. Suicide and Self-Starvation. Philosophy. 59. 229. 349–363. O'Keeffe TM . 1984. 10.1017/S0031819100069941. 154281192 .
  297. Book: Watson B . Exit Rommel: The Tunisian Campaign, 1942–43 . Stackpole Books . 2007 . 170. 978-0-8117-3381-6.
  298. Book: Maris R . Comprehensive textbook of suicidology. 2000. Guilford Press. New York [u.a.]. 978-1-57230-541-0. 97–103.
  299. News: In Salmonella Attack, Taking One for the Team. The New York Times. Chang K . 25 August 2008. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170805103824/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/26/science/26obsalm.html?ref=science. 5 August 2017.
  300. Tofilski A, Couvillon MJ, Evison SE, Helanterä H, Robinson EJ, Ratnieks FL . Preemptive defensive self-sacrifice by ant workers . The American Naturalist . 172 . 5 . E239-43 . November 2008 . 18928332 . 10.1086/591688 . 7052340 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20091127130838/http://www.cyf-kr.edu.pl/~rotofils/Tofilski_etal_2008.pdf . 27 November 2009 .
  301. News: Animal Suicide Sheds Light on Human Behavior. O'Hanlon L . 10 March 2010. Discovery News. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20100725200146/http://news.discovery.com/animals/animal-suicide-behavior.html. 25 July 2010.
  302. Bordereau C, Robert A, Van Tuyen V, Peppuy A . 19770804. 1 August 1997. Suicidal defensive behaviour by frontal gland dehiscence in Globitermes sulphureus Haviland soldiers (Isoptera). Insectes Sociaux. 44. 3. 289–97. 10.1007/s000400050049. 1420-9098.
  303. Web site: Life In The Undergrowth. BBC .
  304. Do Animals Commit Suicide? A Scientific Debate. Time. 19 March 2010. Nobel J . https://web.archive.org/web/20100322192029/http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1973486,00.html . dead . 22 March 2010 .
  305. Stoff DM, Mann JJ . Suicide research. Overview and introduction . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences . 836 . 1 . 1–11 . December 1997 . 9616791 . 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb52352.x . 1997NYASA.836....1S . 31876340 .
  306. Web site: Hogenboom M . 6 July 2016. 20 July 2017. Many animals seem to kill themselves, but it is not suicide. BBC. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20170226233605/http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160705-many-animals-seem-to-kill-themselves-but-it-is-not-suicide. 26 February 2017.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Suicide".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.