Scottish English Explained
Scottish English (Gaelic; Scottish Gaelic: Beurla Albannach) is the set of varieties of the English language spoken in Scotland. The transregional, standardised variety is called Scottish Standard English or Standard Scottish English (SSE).[1] [2] [3] Scottish Standard English may be defined as "the characteristic speech of the professional class [in Scotland] and the accepted norm in schools".[4] IETF language tag for "Scottish Standard English" is en-scotland.[5]
In addition to distinct pronunciation, grammar and expressions, Scottish English has distinctive vocabulary, particularly pertaining to Scottish institutions such as the Church of Scotland, local government and the education and legal systems.[6]
Scottish Standard English is at one end of a bipolar linguistic continuum, with focused broad Scots at the other.[7] Scottish English may be influenced to varying degrees by Scots.[8] [9] Many Scots speakers separate Scots and Scottish English as different registers depending on social circumstances.[10] Some speakers code switch clearly from one to the other while others style shift in a less predictable and more fluctuating manner.[10] Generally, there is a shift to Scottish English in formal situations or with individuals of a higher social status.[11]
Background
Scottish English resulted from language contact between Scots and the Standard English of England after the 17th century. The resulting shifts to English usage by Scots-speakers resulted in many phonological compromises and lexical transfers, often mistaken for mergers by linguists unfamiliar with the history of Scottish English.[12] Furthermore, the process was also influenced by interdialectal forms, hypercorrections and spelling pronunciations.[13] (See the section on phonology below.)
History
Convention traces the influence of the English of England upon Scots to the 16th-century Reformation and to the introduction of printing.[14] Printing arrived in London in 1476, but the first printing press was not introduced to Scotland for another 30 years.[15] Texts such as the Geneva Bible, printed in English, were widely distributed in Scotland in order to spread Protestant doctrine.
King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England in 1603. Since England was the larger and richer of the two Kingdoms, James moved his court to London in England. The poets of the court therefore moved south and "began adapting the language and style of their verse to the tastes of the English market".[16] To this event McClure attributes "the sudden and total eclipse of Scots as a literary language".[16] The continuing absence of a Scots translation of the Bible meant that the translation of King James into English was used in worship in both countries.
The Acts of Union 1707 amalgamated the Scottish and English Parliaments. However the church, educational and legal structures remained separate. This leads to important professional distinctions in the definitions of some words and terms. There are therefore words with precise definitions in Scottish English which are either not used in English English or have a different definition.
Phonology
The speech of the middle classes in Scotland tends to conform to the grammatical norms of the written standard, particularly in situations that are regarded as formal. Highland English is slightly different from the variety spoken in the Lowlands in that it is more phonologically, grammatically, and lexically influenced by a Gaelic substratum. Similarly, the English spoken in the North-East of Scotland tends to follow the phonology and grammar of Doric.
Although pronunciation features vary among speakers (depending on region and social status), there are a number of phonological aspects characteristic of Scottish English:
- Scottish English is mostly rhotic, meaning pronounced as //r// is typically pronounced in the syllable coda, although some non-rhotic varieties are present in Edinburgh and Glasgow.[17] The phoneme pronounced as //r// may be a postalveolar approximant pronounced as /[ɹ]/, as in Received Pronunciation or General American, but speakers have also traditionally used for the same phoneme a somewhat more common alveolar flap pronounced as /[ɾ]/ or, now very rare, the alveolar trill pronounced as /[r]/[18] (hereafter, will be used to denote any rhotic consonant).
- Although other dialects have merged non-intervocalic pronounced as //ɛ//, pronounced as //ɪ//, pronounced as //ʌ// before pronounced as //r// (fern–fir–fur merger), Scottish English makes a distinction between the vowels in fern, fir, and fur.
- Many varieties contrast pronounced as //o// and pronounced as //ɔ// before pronounced as //r// so that hoarse and horse are pronounced differently.
- pronounced as //or// and pronounced as //ur// are contrasted so that shore and sure are pronounced differently, as are pour and poor.
- pronounced as //r// before pronounced as //l// is strong. An epenthetic vowel may occur between pronounced as //r// and pronounced as //l// so that girl and world are two-syllable words for some speakers. The same may occur between pronounced as //r// and pronounced as //m//, between pronounced as //r// and pronounced as //n//, and between pronounced as //l// and pronounced as //m//.
- There is a distinction between pronounced as //w// and pronounced as //hw// in word pairs such as witch and which.
- The phoneme pronounced as //x// is common in names and in SSE's many Gaelic and Scots borrowings, so much so that it is often taught to incomers, particularly for "ch" in loch. Some Scottish speakers use it in words of Greek origin as well, such as technical, patriarch, etc. (Wells 1982, 408).
- pronounced as //l// is usually velarised (see dark l) except in borrowings like "glen" (from Scottish Gaelic "gleann"), which had an unvelarised l in their original form. In areas where Scottish Gaelic was spoken until relatively recently (such as Dumfries and Galloway) and in areas where it is still spoken (such as the West Highlands), velarisation of pronounced as //l// may be absent in many words in which it is present in other areas, but remains in borrowings that had velarised pronounced as //l// in Gaelic, such as "loch" (Gaelic "loch") and "clan" (Gaelic "clann").
- pronounced as //p//, pronounced as //t// and pronounced as //k// are not aspirated in more traditional varieties,[19] but are weakly aspirated currently.
- The past ending -ed may be realised with pronounced as //t// where other accents use pronounced as //d//, chiefly after unstressed vowels: ended pronounced as /[ɛndɪt]/, carried pronounced as /[karɪt]/
- The Scottish Vowel Length Rule is a distinctive part of many varieties of Scottish English (Scobbie et al. 1999), though vowel length is generally regarded as non-phonemic. According to the Rule, certain vowels (such as pronounced as //i//, pronounced as //u//, and pronounced as //ai//) are generally short but are lengthened before voiced fricatives or before pronounced as //r//. Lengthening also occurs before a morpheme boundary, so that short need contrasts with long kneed, crude with crewed, and side with sighed.
- Scottish English has no pronounced as //ʊ//, instead transferring Scots pronounced as //u//. Phonetically, this vowel may be pronounced pronounced as /[ʉ]/ or even pronounced as /[ʏ]/. Thus pull and pool are homophones.
- Cot and caught are not differentiated in most Central Scottish varieties, as they are in some other varieties.[20]
- In most varieties, there is no pronounced as //æ//-pronounced as //ɑː// distinction; therefore, bath, trap, and palm have the same vowel.[20]
- The happY vowel is most commonly pronounced as //e// (as in face), but may also be pronounced as //ɪ// (as in kit) or pronounced as //i// (as in fleece).[21]
- pronounced as //θs// is often used in plural nouns where southern English has pronounced as //ðz// (baths, youths, etc.); with and booth are pronounced with pronounced as //θ//. (See Pronunciation of English th.)
- In colloquial speech, the glottal stop may be an allophone of pronounced as //t// after a vowel, as in pronounced as /[ˈbʌʔər]/. These same speakers may "drop the g" in the suffix -ing and debuccalise pronounced as //θ// to pronounced as /[h]/ in certain contexts.
- pronounced as //ɪ// may be more open pronounced as /[ë̞]/ for certain speakers in some regions, so that it sounds more like pronounced as /[ɛ]/ (although pronounced as //ɪ// and pronounced as //ɛ// do not merge). Other speakers may pronounce it as pronounced as /[ɪ]/, just as in many other accents, or with a schwa-like (pronounced as /[ə]/) quality. Others may pronounce it almost as pronounced as /[ʌ]/ in certain environments, particularly after pronounced as //w// and pronounced as //hw//.
Pure vowels | Scottish English | Examples |
|---|
| pronounced as /[ë̞~ɪ]/ | bid, pit |
| pronounced as /[i]/ | bead, peat |
| pronounced as /[ɛ~ɛ̝]/ | bed, pet |
| pronounced as /[e(ː)]/ | bay, hey, fate |
| pronounced as /[ä]/ | bad, pat |
| balm, father, pa |
| pronounced as /[ɔ]/ | bod, pot, cot |
| bawd, paw, caught |
| pronounced as /[o(ː)]/
| road, stone, toe |
| pronounced as /[ʉ~ʏ]/ | good, foot, put |
| booed, food |
| pronounced as /[ʌ~ɐ]/ | bud, putt |
| Diphthongs |
|---|
| pronounced as /[ai]/ | buy, strive, writhe |
| bind, strife, write |
| pronounced as /[ɐʉ~ɜʉ~əʉ]/
| how, pout |
| pronounced as /[oi]/ | boy, hoy |
| Vowels followed by pronounced as //r// |
|---|
| pronounced as /[ä(ːə)r]/ | bar, mar |
| pronounced as /[i(ːə)r]/ | beer, mere |
| pronounced as /[e(ːə)r]/ | bear, mare, Mary |
| pronounced as /[ɔ(ː)r]/ | born, for |
| pronounced as /[o(ːə)r]/ | boar, four, more |
| pronounced as /[ʉr]/ | boor, moor |
(pronounced as /) / | pronounced as /[ɪr]/ | bird, fir |
| pronounced as /[ɛ̝r]/ | herd, fern |
| pronounced as /[ʌr]/ | curse, fur |
| Reduced vowels |
|---|
| pronounced as /[ə]/ | Rosa's, cuppa |
| pronounced as /[ər]/ | runner, mercer | |
Scotticisms
See main article: Scotticism. Scotticisms are idioms or expressions that are characteristic of Scots, especially when used in English.[22] They are more likely to occur in spoken than written language.[23]
The use of Scottish English, as well as of Scots and of Gaelic in Scotland, were documented over the 20th century by the Linguistic Survey of Scotland at the University of Edinburgh.
Scotticisms are generally divided into two types:[24] covert Scotticisms, which generally go unnoticed as being particularly Scottish by those using them, and overt Scotticisms, usually used for stylistic effect, with those using them aware of their Scottish nature.
Lexical
Scottish English has inherited a number of lexical items from Scots,[25] which are less common in other forms of standard English.
General items are en-scotland|wee, the Scots word for small (also common in Canadian English, New Zealand English and Hiberno-English probably under Scottish influence); en-scotland|wean or en-scotland|bairn for child (the latter from Common Germanic,[26] cf modern Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Faroese barn, West Frisian bern and also used in Northern English dialects); bonnie for pretty, attractive, (or good looking, handsome, as in the case of Bonnie Prince Charlie); braw for fine; muckle for big; spail or skelf for splinter (cf. spall); snib for bolt; pinkie for little finger; janitor for school caretaker (these last two are also standard in American English); outwith, meaning 'outside of'; cowp for tip or spill; fankle for a tangled mess; kirk for 'church' (from the same root in Old English but with parallels in other Germanic languages, e.g. Old Norse Norse, Old: kirkja, Dutch Dutch; Flemish: kerk). Examples of culturally specific items are Hogmanay, caber, haggis, bothy, scone (also used elsewhere in the British Isles), oatcake (now widespread in the UK), tablet, rone (roof gutter), teuchter, ned, numpty (witless person; now more common in the rest of the UK) and landward (rural); It's your shot for "It's your turn"; and the once notorious but now obsolete tawse.
The diminutive ending "-ie" is added to nouns to indicate smallness, as in laddie and lassie for a young boy and young girl. Other examples are peirie (child's wooden spinning top) and sweetie (piece of confectionery). The ending can be added to many words instinctively, e.g. bairn (see above) can become bairnie, a small shop can become a wee shoppie. These diminutives are particularly common among the older generations and when talking to children.
The use of "How?" meaning "Why?" is distinctive of Scottish, Northern English and Northern Irish English. "Why not?" is often rendered as "How no?".
There is a range of (often anglicised) legal and administrative vocabulary inherited from Scots,[27] e.g. depute pronounced as //ˈdɛpjut// for deputy, proven pronounced as //ˈproːvən// for proved (standard in American English), interdict for '"injunction",[28] [29] and sheriff-substitute for "acting sheriff". In Scottish education a short leet is a list of selected job applicants, and a remit is a detailed job description. Provost is used for "mayor" and procurator fiscal for "public prosecutor".
Often, lexical differences between Scottish English and Southern Standard English are simply differences in the distribution of shared lexis, such as stay for "live" (as in: where do you stay?).
Grammatical
The progressive verb forms are used rather more frequently than in other varieties of standard English, for example with some stative verbs (en-scotland|I'm wanting a drink). The future progressive frequently implies an assumption (en-scotland|You'll be coming from Glasgow?).
In some areas perfect aspect of a verb is indicated using "be" as auxiliary with the preposition "after" and the present participle: for example "He is after going" instead of "He has gone" (this construction is borrowed from Scottish Gaelic).
The definite article tends to be used more frequently in phrases such as I've got the cold/the flu, he's at the school, I'm away to the kirk.
Speakers often use prepositions differently. The compound preposition off of is often used (Take that off of the table). Scots commonly say I was waiting on you (meaning "waiting for you"), which means something quite different in Standard English.
In colloquial speech shall and ought are scarce, must is marginal for obligation and may is rare. Here are other syntactical structures:
- My hair is needing washed or My hair needs washed for "My hair needs washing" or "My hair needs to be washed".[30]
- Amn't I invited? for Am I not invited?[31]
In Scottish English, the first person declarative I amn't invited and interrogative Amn't I invited? are both possible.
See also
Bibliography
- Book: Abercrombie, D.. 1979. The accents of Standard English in Scotland.. A. J. Aitken . T. McArthur . Languages of Scotland. 65–84. Edinburgh . Chambers.
- Aitken, A. J. (1979) "Scottish speech: a historical view with special reference to the Standard English of Scotland" in A. J. Aitken and Tom McArthur eds. Languages of Scotland, Edinburgh: Chambers, 85–118. Updated in next.
- Book: Corbett. John. McClure. J. Derrick. Stuart-Smith. Jane. Edinburgh Student Companion to Scots . Edinburgh . Edinburgh University Press . 2003 . 0-7486-1596-2.
- Book: Foulkes. Paul. Docherty. Gerard J.. 1999 . Urban Voices: Accent Studies in the British Isles . London . Arnold . 0-340-70608-2.
- Book: Hughes. Arthur. Trudgill. Peter. Watt. Dominic. 2005. English Accents and Dialects (4th Ed.) . London . Arnold . 0-340-88718-4.
- Book: Macafee, C.. 2004. Scots and Scottish English. Hikey R. . Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects. Cambridge . CUP.
- Book: Burchfield, Robert . McClure . J. Derrick . 1994 . English in Scotland . The Cambridge History of the English Language, volume V . Cambridge University Press . Cambridge, UK . 0-521-26478-2 .
- Scobbie. James M.. Gordeeva. Olga B.. Matthews. Benjamin. 2006. Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an Overview. Edinburgh. QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers.
- Book: Scobbie. James M.. Nigel. Hewlett. Alice. Turk. 1999. Standard English in Edinburgh and Glasgow: The Scottish Vowel Length Rule revealed. Paul Foulkes . Gerard J. Docherty . Urban Voices: Accent Studies in the British Isles. 230–245. London . Arnold.
- Book: Scobbie. James M.. Olga B.. Gordeeva. Benjamin. Matthews. 2007. Scottish English Speech Acquisition. Sharynne McLeod . The International Guide to Speech Acquisition.. 221–240. Clifton Park, New York . Thomson Delmar Learning.
- Book: Wells, John C. . Accents of English . Cambridge . . 1982 . 0-521-22919-7 . (vol. 1). (vol. 2)., (vol. 3) . John C. Wells.
Further reading
- Web site: Jilka. Matthias. Scottish Standard English and Scots. Stuttgart. Institut für Linguistik/Anglistik, University of Stuttgart. https://web.archive.org/web/20140421081915/http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/institut/mitarbeiter/jilka/teaching/dialectology/d8_Scotland.pdf. 21 April 2014.
External links
Notes and References
- Web site: SCOTS - Corpus Details . Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech. scottishcorpus.ac.uk.
- https://web.archive.org/web/20060517185856/http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/freefun/didyouknow/placenames/scotsintro.html "... Scottish Standard English, the standard form of the English language spoken in Scotland"
- Web site: Teaching Secondary English in Scotland - Scottish Corpus of Texts and Speech . Scottishcorpus.ac.uk . 30 April 2010.
- McClure (1994), pp. 79-80
- Web site: language subtag registry . Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. 13 April 2015.
- News: Vote on your favourite Scots law expression. 10 June 2020. Scottish Legal News . Kapil . Summan . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240208144037/https://www.scottishlegal.com/articles/vote-on-your-favourite-scots-law-expression . Feb 8, 2024 .
- Stuart-Smith J. Scottish English: Phonology in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p.47
- Stuart-Smith J. Scottish English: Phonology in Varieties of English: The British Isles, Kortman & Upton (Eds), Mouton de Gruyter, New York 2008. p.48
- Macafee C. Scots in Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 11, Elsevier, Oxford, 2005. p.33
- Aitken A.J. Scottish Speech in Languages of Scotland, Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. p.85
- Aitken A.J. Scottish Speech in Languages of Scotland, Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. p.86
- Macafee, C. (2004). "Scots and Scottish English". in Hikey R.(ed.),. Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects. Cambridge: CUP. p. 60-61
- Macafee, C. (2004). "Scots and Scottish English".. in Hikey R.(ed.),. Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects. Cambridge: CUP. p.61
- McClure (1994), pp. 33ff
- Web site: Place in history - First Scottish Books - National Library of Scotland. nls.uk.
- McClure (1994), p. 36
- Book: Stuart-Smith, Jane. Foulkes . Paul . Docherty . Gerard . Urban Voices . Arnold . 1999 . 210. Glasgow: accent and voice quality . 0-340-70608-2.
- Lodge, Ken (2009). A Critical Introduction to Phonetics. A & C Black. p. 180
- Web site: Wir Ain Leid. 18 March 2012. section "Consonants".
- Wells, pp. 399 ff.
- Wells, p. 405.
- Book: Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 21 April 2008. An idiom or mode of expression characteristic of Scots; esp. as used by a writer of English..
- Aitken A.J. Scottish Speech in Languages of Scotland, Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. p.105
- Aitken, A.J. Scottish Accents and Dialects in Trudgil, P. Language in the British Isles. 1984. p.105-108
- Aitken A.J. Scottish Speech in Languages of Scotland, Association for Scottish Literary Studies, Occasional Paper 4, Edinburgh:Chambers 1979. p.106-107
- Web site: Home : Oxford English Dictionary. oed.com.
- Murison, David (1977, 1978). The Guid Scots Tongue. Edinburgh: William Blackwood, pp. 53–54
- Web site: interdict . Dictionary of the Scots Language . 25 December 2015.
- Web site: interdict . https://web.archive.org/web/20120712091301/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/interdict . dead . 12 July 2012 . Oxford Dictionaries . 25 December 2015.
- Web site: Scottish Standard English. scots-online.org.
- Web site: Definition of AMN'T. Merriam-Webster .
