Southern Athabaskan languages explained

Southern Athabascan
Also Known As:	Apachean
Region:	Southwestern United States and northern Mexico
Familycolor:	Dené-Yeniseian
Fam2:	Na-Dené
Fam3:	Athabaskan–Eyak
Fam4:	Athabaskan
Child1:	Plains Apache
Child2:	Western Apachean
Child3:	Eastern Apachean
Map:	Southern_Athabaskan_languages.svg
Mapcaption:	Historical distribution of Southern Athabaskan languages
Iso2:	apa
Iso5:	apa
Glotto:	apac1239
Glottorefname:	Apachean

Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken primarily in the Southwestern United States (including Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) with two outliers in Oklahoma and Texas. The languages are spoken in the northern Mexican states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila and to a much lesser degree in Durango and Nuevo León. Those languages are spoken by various groups of Apache and Navajo peoples. Elsewhere, Athabaskan is spoken by many indigenous groups of peoples in Alaska, Canada, Oregon and northern California.

Self-designations for Western Apache and Navajo are N'dee biyat'i, and or, respectively.

There are several well-known historical people whose first language was Southern Athabaskan. Geronimo (Goyaałé) who spoke Chiricahua was a famous raider and war leader. Manuelito spoke Navajo and is famous for his leadership during and after the Long Walk of the Navajo.

Family division

The seven Southern Athabaskan languages can be divided into two groups according to the classification of Harry Hoijer: (I) Plains and (II) Southwestern. Plains Apache is the only member of the Plains Apache group. The Southwestern group can be further divided into two subgroups (A) Western and (B) Eastern. The Western subgroup consists of Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua. The Eastern subgroup consists of Jicarilla and Lipan.

• Southern Athabaskan
  • Plains Apache (Kiowa–Apache) (in Apache: Naishan)
  • Southwestern
    • Western
      • Chiricahua-Mescalero (in Apache: Ndee Bizaa)
        • Chiricahua (in Apache: N'nee biyat'i)
          • Chiricahua proper
          • Warm Springs
        • Mescalero (in Apache: Ndé Bizaa')
      • Navajo (a.k.a. Navahu˙) (in Navajo: Naabeehó bizaad, Diné bizaad)
      • Western Apache (a.k.a. Coyotero Apache) (in Apache: N'dee biyát'i)
        • Tonto (in Apache: Dilzhę́’é)
          • Northern Tonto
          • Southern Tonto
        • White Mountain
        • San Carlos
        • Cibecue (ˀa˙paču)
    • Eastern
      • Jicarilla (a.k.a. Hikariya Apache) (in Apache: Abáachi, Abáachi mizaa)
      • Lipan (in Apache: Ndé miizaa)

Hoijer's classification is based primarily on the differences of the pronunciation of the initial consonant of noun and verb stems. His earlier 1938 classification had only two branches with Plains Apache grouped together with the other Eastern languages (i.e. with Jicarilla and Lipan).

Mescalero and Chiricahua are considered different languages even though they are mutually intelligible. Western Apache (especially the Dilzhe'e variety) and Navajo are closer to each other than either is to Mescalero/Chiricahua. Lipan Apache and Plains Apache are nearly extinct, and Chiricahua is severely endangered. Mescalero, Jicarilla, and Western Apache are considered endangered as well, with some children still learning the languages despite the number of child speakers continuing to diminish. Navajo is one of the most vigorous North American languages, but has still faced decline, with use among first-graders decreasing from 90% in 1968 to 30% in 1998.^[1]

The Southern Athabaskan languages spoken in Mexico are regulated by the Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI) and have the official status of national languages of Mexico. To revitalize the languages, the institute created a community based Language Planning Council with native speakers to establish and develop grammar rules and the normalization of the writing system, an official alphabet has been validated since then while other grammar topics are still in development.^[2]

Phonology

pronounced as /notice/All Southern Athabaskan languages are somewhat similar in their phonology. The following description will concentrate on Western Apache. One can expect minor variations for other related languages (such as Navajo, Jicarilla, Chiricahua).

Consonants

Southern Athabaskan languages generally have a consonant inventory similar to the set of 33 consonants below (based mostly on Western Apache):

		Labial	Alveolar	Alveolar	Lateral	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop/ Affricate	unaspirated	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/ (pronounced as /kʷ/)
	aspirated		pronounced as /tʰ/	pronounced as /tsʰ/	pronounced as /tɬʰ/	pronounced as /tʃʰ/	pronounced as /kʰ (kʷʰ)/
	glottalized		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
	prenasalized/ voiced	(pronounced as /ⁿb/)	(pronounced as /ⁿd//pronounced as /link//pronounced as /link/)
Nasal	simple	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
	glottalized	(pronounced as /ˀm/)	(pronounced as /ˀn/)
Fricative	voiceless			pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
	voiced	(pronounced as /link/)		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/ (pronounced as /ɣʷ/)
Approximant						pronounced as /link/	(pronounced as /link/)

• Only Navajo and Western Apache have glottalized nasals.

Orthography (consonants)

The practical orthography corresponds to the pronunciation of the Southern Athabaskan languages fairly well (as opposed to the writing systems of English or Vietnamese). Below is a table pairing up the phonetic notation with the orthographic symbol:

IPA	spelling	IPA	spelling	IPA	spelling	IPA	spelling
pronounced as /[t]/	d	pronounced as /[tʰ]/	t	pronounced as /[tʼ]/	t’	pronounced as /[j ]/	y
pronounced as /[k]/	g	pronounced as /[kʰ]/	k	pronounced as /[kʼ]/	k’	pronounced as /[h]/	h
pronounced as /[ts]/	dz	pronounced as /[tsʰ]/	ts	pronounced as /[tsʼ]/	ts’	pronounced as /[ʔ]/	’
pronounced as /[tʃ]/	j	pronounced as /[tʃʰ]/	ch	pronounced as /[tʃʼ]/	ch’	pronounced as /[l]/	l
pronounced as /[tɬ]/	dl	pronounced as /[tɬʰ]/	tł	pronounced as /[tɬʼ]/	tł’	pronounced as /[ɬ]/	ł
pronounced as /[p]/	b	pronounced as /[pʰ]/	p	pronounced as /[ⁿb]/	b/m	pronounced as /[ⁿd]/	d/n/nd
pronounced as /[s]/	s	pronounced as /[ʃ]/	sh	pronounced as /[m]/	m	pronounced as /[n]/	n
pronounced as /[z]/	z	pronounced as /[ʒ]/	zh	pronounced as /[ˀm]/	’m	pronounced as /[ˀn]/	’n
pronounced as /[x]/	h
pronounced as /[ɣ]/	gh

Some spelling conventions:

1. Fricatives pronounced as /[h]/ and pronounced as /[x]/ are both written as h. (see also #2 below)
2. The fricative pronounced as /[x]/ is usually written as h, but after o it may be written as hw, especially in Western Apache (may be pronounced pronounced as /[xʷ]/).
3. The fricative pronounced as /[ɣ]/ is written gh the majority of the time, but before i and e it is written as y (& may be pronounced pronounced as /[ʝ]/), and before o it is written as w (& may be pronounced pronounced as /[ɣʷ]/).
4. All words that begin with a vowel are pronounced with a glottal stop ’ pronounced as /[ʔ]/. This glottal stop is never written at the beginning of a word.
5. Some words are pronounced either as d or n or nd, depending on the dialect of the speaker. This is represented in the consonant table above as pronounced as /[ⁿd]/. The same is true with b and m in a few words.
6. In many words n can occur in a syllable by itself in which case it is a syllabic pronounced as /[n̩]/. This is not indicated in the spelling.

Vowels

Southern Athabaskan languages have four vowels of contrasting tongue dimensions (as written in a general "practical" orthography):

	Front	Central	Back
High	pronounced as /i/
Mid	pronounced as /e/		pronounced as /o/
Low		pronounced as /a/

These vowels may also be short or long and oral (non-nasal) or nasal. Nasal vowels are indicated by an ogonek (or nasal hook) diacritic ˛ in Western Apache, Navajo, Mescalero, and Chiricahua; in Jicarilla, the nasal vowels are indicated by underlining the vowel, results in 16 different vowels:

		High-Front	Mid-Front	Mid-Back	Low-Central
Oral	short	pronounced as /i/	pronounced as /e/	pronounced as /o/	pronounced as /a/
	long	pronounced as /ii/	pronounced as /ee/	pronounced as /oo/	pronounced as /aa/
Nasal	short	pronounced as /į/	pronounced as /ę/	pronounced as /ǫ/	pronounced as /ą/
	long	pronounced as /įį/	pronounced as /ęę/	pronounced as /ǫǫ/	pronounced as /ąą/

IPA equivalents for Western Apache oral vowels:

pronounced as /i/ = pronounced as /[ɪ]/,pronounced as /ii/ = pronounced as /[iː]/,pronounced as /e/ = pronounced as /[ɛ]/,pronounced as /ee/ = pronounced as /[ɛː]/,pronounced as /o/ = pronounced as /[o]/,pronounced as /oo/ = pronounced as /[ʊː]/,pronounced as /a/ = pronounced as /[ɐ]/,pronounced as /aa/ = pronounced as /[ɑː]/.

In Western Apache, there is a practice where orthographic vowels o and oo are written as u in certain contexts. These contexts do not include nasalized vowels, so nasal u never occurs in the orthography. This practice continues into the present (perhaps somewhat inconsistently).

However, in Harry Hoijer and other American linguists' work all o-vowels are written as o. Similarly, Navajo does not use orthographic u, consistently writing this vowel as o.

In Chiricahua and Mescalero, this vowel is written as u in all contexts (including nasalized ų).

Other practices may be used in other Apachean languages.

Tone

Southern Athabaskan languages are tonal languages. Hoijer and other linguists analyze Southern Athabaskan languages as having four tones (using Americanist transcription system):

• high (marked with acute accent ´, Example: á)
• low (marked with grave accent `, Example: à)
• rising (marked with háček ˇ, Example: ǎ)
• falling (marked with circumflex ˆ, Example: â)

Rising and falling tones are less common in the language (often occurring over morpheme boundaries) and often occur on long vowels. Vowels can carry tone as well as syllabic n (Example: ń).

The practical orthography has tried to simplify the Americanist transcription system by representing only high tone with an acute accent and leaving low tone unmarked:

• high tone: á
• low tone: a

Then, niziz is written instead of the previous nìzìz.

Additionally, rising tone on long vowels is indicated by an unmarked first vowel and an acute accent on the second. It is vice versa for falling tone:

• rising: aá (instead of Americanist: ǎ·)
• falling: áa (instead of Americanist: â·)

Nasal vowels carry tone as well, resulting in a two diacritics on vowels with high tone: ą́ (presenting problems for computerization). Recently, de Reuse (2006) has found that Western Apache also has a mid tone, which he indicates with a macron diacritic ¯, as in ō, ǭ. In Chiricahua, a falling tone can occur on a syllabic n: n̂.

Here are some vowel contrasts involving nasalization, tone, and length from Chiricahua Apache:

cha̧a̧  'feces'

chaa  'beaver'

shiban  'my buckskin'

shibán  'my bread'

bik’ai’  'his hip'

bík’ai’  'his stepmother'

hah’aał  'you two are going to chew it'

hah’ał  'you two are chewing it'

Comparative phonology

The Southern Athabascan branch was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series pronounced as /

• k̯

/ and pronounced as /

• c

/ into pronounced as /

• c

/ (in addition to the widespread merger of pronounced as /

• č

/ and pronounced as /

• čʷ

/ into pronounced as /

• č

/ also found in many Northern Athabascan languages).

Proto- Athabascan		Navajo	Western Apache	Chiricahua	Mescalero	Jicarilla	Lipan	Plains Apache
pronounced as / k̯uʔs /	"handle fabric-like object"	-tsooz	-tsooz	-tsuuz	-tsuudz	-tsoos	-tsoos	-tsoos
pronounced as / ce· /	"stone"	tsé	tséé	tsé	tsé	tsé	tsí	tséé

Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean pronounced as /

• t

/ and pronounced as /

• k

/ to k in the Eastern branch. Thus, as can be seen in the example below, when the Western languages have noun or verb stems that start with t, the related forms in the Eastern languages will start with a k:

	Western				Eastern
	Navajo	Western Apache	Chiricahua	Mescalero	Jicarilla	Lipan	Plains Apache
"water"	tó	tū	tú	tú	kó	kó	kóó
"fire"	kǫʼ	kǫʼ	kųų	kų	ko̱ʼ	kǫǫʼ	kǫʼ

He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the pronounced as /

• k̯/*c

/ merger, to consider Plains Apache to be equidistant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Thus, some stems that originally started with *k̯ in Proto-Athabascan start with ch in Plains Apache, but the other languages start with ts.

Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between both and their differences from the other Western Apachean groups. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. Additionally, it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge Proto-Athabascan pronounced as /

• k̯/*c

/, Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer.

Other differences and similarities among the Southern Athabaskan languages can be observed in the following modified and abbreviated Swadesh list:

	Navajo	Chiricahua	Western Apache (San Carlos)	Jicarilla	Lipan
I	shí	shí	shíí	shí	shí
you	ni	ⁿdí	ⁿdi	ni	ⁿdí
we	nihí	náhí	nohwíí	nahí	nahí
many	łą́	łą́	łą́ą́	łá	łą́
one	ła’	ła’	ła’-	ła’	ła’-
two	naaki	naaki	naaki	naaki	naaki
big	-tso	-tso	-tso	-tso	-tso
long	-neez	-neez	-neez	-ⁿdees	-ⁿdiis
small	-yáázh	-zą́ą́yé	-zhaazh	-zhááh	-zhą́ą́yí
woman	’asdzání	’isdzáń	’isdzánhń	’isdzání	’isdzání
man	diné	nⁿdé	nnéé	diⁿdé	diⁿdí
fish	łóó’	łóí’	łóg	łógee	łǫ́’
dog	łééchą́ą́’í	kéjaa	łį́į́chaayáné	chíníí	nii’łį́
louse	yaa’	yaa	yaa’	yaa’	yaa
tree	tsin	tsin	ch’il	nooshchíí	chish
leaf	-t’ąą’	-t’ąą	-t’ąą’	-t’ąą’	-t’ąą’
meat	-tsį’	-tsįį	-tsį’	-tsį	-tsįį
blood	dił	dił	dił	dił	dił
bone	ts’in	ts’į’	ts’in	-ts’in	-ts’įh
grease	-k’ah	k’ah	k’ah	ik'a	xáí
egg	-yęęzhii	-gheezhe	-ghęęzh	-yezhii	-ghaish
horn	-dee’	-dee’	-dee’	-dee’	-dii’
tail	-tsee’	-tsee’	-tsee’	-tsee’	-dzistsii’
feather	-t’a’	-t’a’	-t’a’	-t’a’	-t’a’
hair	-ghaa’	-ghaa	-ghaa	-ghaa’	-ghaa
head	-tsii’	-tsii	-tsii	-tsii	-tsii’
ear	-jaa’	-zhaa	-jaa	-jaa	-jaa
eye	-náá’	-ⁿdáa	-náá	-ⁿdáá	-ⁿdáa
nose	-´-chį́į́h	-´-chį́	-chį́h	-chį́sh	-´-chį́sh
mouth	-zéé’	-zé	-zé’	-zé’	-zí’
tooth	-woo’	-ghoo	-ghoo’	-woo	-ghoo
tongue	-tsoo’	-zaade	-zaad	-zaadi	-zaadi
claw	-s-gaan	-s-gan	-gan	-s-gan	-s-gąą
foot	-kee’	-kee	-kee’	-kee	-kii
knee	-god	-go’	-god	-go’	-goh
hand	-´-la’	-laa	-la’	-la’	-laa’

Grammar

See main article: Southern Athabascan grammar.

Further reading

• Cremony, John Carey. 1868. Life Among the Apaches. A. Roman, 1868. Length 322 pages. Chapter XX discusses the Apache language, number system, and grammar.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. American Anthropologist, 40 (1), 75-87.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11 (1), 13-23.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11 (4), 193-203.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (1), 1-13.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12 (2), 51-59.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 14 (4), 247–259.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics, 15 (1), 12–22.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1956). The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 22 (4), 219-232.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1963). The Athapaskan languages. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 1–29). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Hoijer, Harry (Ed.). (1963). Studies in the Athapaskan languages. University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock. In K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.), Apachean culture history and ethnology (pp. 3–6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
• Hymes, Dell H. (1957). A note on Athapaskan glottochronology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 22 (4), 291-297.
• Liebe-Harkot, Marie-Louise. (1984). A comparison of Apachean languages, exemplified by the verb system for handling verbs. In H. Krenn, J. Niemeyer, & U. Eberhardt (Eds.), Sprache und Text: Akten des 18: Linguistischen Kolloquiums, Linz 1983. Linguistische Arbeiten (Max Niemeyer Verlag) (Nos. 145-146). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. (Bd. 1); (Bd. 2).
• de Reuse, Willem J. (2001). Prototypes and fuzziness in the system and usage of Apachean classificatory verb stems. In S. Tuttle & G. Holton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2001 Athabaskan Languages Conference (No. 1, pp. 75–94). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center.
• Sapir, Edward. (1936). Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho. American Anthropologist, 38 (2), 224-235.
• Young, Robert W. (1983). Apachean languages. In A. Ortiz, W. C. Sturtevant (Eds.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 393–400). Washington: Smithsonian Institution. .

Chiricahua

• Hoijer, Harry. (n.d.). Chiricahua Apache stems. (Unpublished manuscript).
• Hoijer, Harry. (1938). Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
• Hoijer, Harry. (1939). Chiricahua loan-words from Spanish. Language, 15 (2), 110-115.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1946). Chiricahua Apache. In C. Osgood (Ed.), Linguistic structures in North America. New York: Wenner-Green Foundation for Anthropological Research.
• Opler, Morris E., & Hoijer, Harry. (1940). The raid and war-path language of the Chiricahua Apache. Language, 42 (4), 617-634.
• Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [''The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero'']. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
• Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's "Coyote and the Whiteman": Contact in and out of a Chiricahua narrative. In A. Trefzer & R. L. Murray (Eds.), Reclaiming Native American cultures, proceedings of the Native American Symposium (pp. 67–80). Durant, OK: Southeastern Oklahoma State University.
• Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Sam Kenoi's coyote stories: Poetics and rhetoric in some Chiricahua Apache narratives. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 23, 137-163.
• Webster, Anthony K. (1999). Lisandro Medez's "Coyote and Deer": On reciprocity, narrative structures, and interactions. American Indian Quarterly, 23, 1-24.
• Webster, Anthony K. (2006). On Speaking to Him (Coyote): The Discourse Function of the yi-/bi- Alternation in Some Chiricahua Apache Narratives. Southwest Journal of Linguistics, 25(2), 143-160.

Mescalero

• Breunginger, Evelyn; Hugar, Elbys; & Lathan, Ellen Ann. (1982). Mescalero Apache dictionary. Mescalero: NM: Mescalero Apache Tribe.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1938). Chiricahua and Mescalero Apache texts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. .
• Pinnow, Jürgen. (1988). Die Sprache der Chiricahua-Apachen: Mit Seitenblicken auf das Mescalero [The language of the Chiricahua Apache: With side glances at the Mescalero]. Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.
• Rushforth, Scott. (1991). Uses of Bearlake and Mescalero (Athapaskan) classificatory verbs. International Journal of American Linguistics, 57, 251-266.

Jicarilla

• Book: Goddard. Pliny Earle. Pliny Earle Goddard. Jicarilla Apache texts. 24 August 2012. 1911. The Trustees. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History (Vol. 8). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
• Phone, Wilhelmina; Olson, Maureen; & Martinez, Matilda. (forthcoming). Abáachi mizaa łáo iłkee’ shijai: Dictionary of Jicarilla Apache. Axelrod, Melissa; Gómez de García, Jule; Lachler, Jordan; & Burke, Sean (Eds.). UNM Press. (Estimated publication date: summer 2006).
• Phone, Wilma; & Torivio, Patricia. (1981). Jicarilla mizaa medaóołkai dáłáéé. Albuquerque: Native American Materials Development Center.
• Tuttle, Siri G.; & Sandoval, Merton. (2002). Jicarilla Apache. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 32, 105-112.
• Vicenti, Carson. (1981). Jicarilla Apache dictionary. Native American Materials Development Center, Ramah Navajo School Board.
• Wilson, Alan, & Vigil Martine, Rita. (1996). Apache (Jicarilla). Guilford, CT: Audio-Forum. . (Includes book and cassette recording).

Navajo

Western Apache

• Basso, Keith H. (1979). Portraits of "the whiteman": Linguistic play and cultural symbols among the Western Apache. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
• Basso, Keith H. (1990). Western Apache language and culture: Essays in linguistic anthropology. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. .
• Basso, Keith H. (1996). Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. .
• Bray, Dorothy, & White Mountain Apache Tribe. (1998). Western Apache-English dictionary: A community-generated bilingual dictionary. Tempe, AZ: Bilingual Press. .
• Durbin, Marshall. (1964). A componential analysis of the San Carlos dialect of Western Apache: A study based on the analysis of the phonology, morphophonics, and morphemics. (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York, Buffalo).
• Book: Goddard. Pliny Earle. San Carlos Apache texts. 24 August 2012. 1919. American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 3). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
• Book: Goddard. Pliny Earle. White Mountain Apache texts. 24 August 2012. 1920. The Trustees. Anthropological papers of the American Museum of Natural History, (Vol. 24, Part 4). New York: The American Museum of Natural History.
• Goodwin, Grenville. (1939). Myth and tales of the White Mountain Apache. New York: American Folk-Lore Society (J. J. Augustin).
• Gordon, Matthew; Potter, Brian; Dawson, John; de Reuse, Willem; & Ladefoged, Peter. (2001). Phonetic structures of Western Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics, 67 (4), 415-481.
• Greenfeld, Philip J. (1971). Playing card names in Western Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics, 37 (3), 195-196.
• Greenfeld, Philip J. (1972). The phonological hierarchy of the White Mountain dialect of Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona, Tucson).
• Greenfeld, Philip J. (1978). Some special phonological characteristics of the White Mountain dialect of Apachean. Anthropological Linguistics, 20 (1), 150-157.
• Greenfeld, Philip J. (1984). A treatment for stress in Apache. International Journal of American Linguistics, 50 (1), 105-111.
• Hill, Faith. (1963). Some comparisons between the San Carlos and White Mountain dialects of Western Apache. In H. Hoijer (Ed.), Studies in the Athapaskan languages (pp. 149–154). University of California publications in linguistics 29. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Mierau, Eric. (1963). Concerning Yavapai-Apache bilingualism. International Journal of American Linguistics, 29 (1), 1-3.
• Potter, Brian. (1997). Wh/indefinites and the structure of the clause in Western Apache. (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.
• de Reuse, Willem J. (1993). Stylistic and dialectal variation in Western Apache phonology. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson.
• de Reuse, Willem J. (2006). A practical grammar of the San Carlos Apache language. Lincom Studies in Native American Linguistics 51. Lincom. .
• White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1972). Western Apache dictionary. Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.
• White Mountain Apache Culture Center. (1983). New! keys to reading and writing Apache (rev. ed.). Fort Apache, AZ: White Mountain Apache Culture Center.

Other

• Hoijer, Harry. (1975). The history and customs of the Lipan, as told by Augustina Zuazua. Linguistics, 161, 5-38.
• Bittle. 1963. “Kiowa–Apache.” In Studies in the Athapaskan Languages. (Ed. Hoijer, Harry). University of California Studies in Linguistics vol. 29. Berkeley: California UP. 76-101.

External links

• How Different can Languages be?: The grammatical mosaic of Navajo
• Simplified Apache Pronunciation
• Chiricahua and Mescalero Texts
• Grammatical Sketch of Chiricahua/Mescalero
• Other Apache Ethnographical Sources
• Apache texts
• Goddard's Jicarilla Texts (translation only)
• Issues in Language Textbook Development: The Case of Western Apache
• White Mountain Apache Language: Issues in Language Shift, Textbook Development, and Native Speaker-University Collaboration
• Phonetic Structures of Western Apache (318 kb PDF: technical work on acoustic phonetics)
• EtymOnline.com, Apache Online Etymology Dictionary
• Language-Museum.com, Apache Language Sample

Notes and References

1. https://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/09/us/indians-striving-to-save-their-languages.html Brooke, James. "Indians Striving to Save Their Languages." New York Times, p. A1, April 9, 1998.
2. Web site: Lengua N'dee/N'nee/Ndé .