Snake handling in Christianity explained

Snake handling, also called serpent handling, is a religious rite observed in a small number of isolated churches, mostly in the United States, usually characterized as rural and part of the Holiness movement. The practice began in the early 20th century in Appalachia and plays only a small part in the church service. Participants are Holiness, or Pentecostals. The beliefs and practices of the movement have been documented in several films and have been the impetus for a number of state laws related to the handling of venomous animals.

History

Gnosticism

In the 2nd century the Ophites reportedly handled snakes during their services,^[1] and also worshipped the serpent.^[2]

In American Christianity

The practice of snake handling first appeared in American Christianity around 1910^[3] and was associated with the ministry of George Went Hensley of Grasshopper Valley in southeastern Tennessee. Hensley's role in initiating the practice has been disputed by academic studies. Kimbrough notes that claims of Hensley being the originator of snake handling are usually found to be unsubstantiated by research, and the origins of the observance are unclear. Hood and Williamson similarly argue that the beginnings of Pentecostal snake-handling rituals cannot be ascribed to a single person, and that the observance arose independently on multiple occasions.

However, historians agree that Hensley's advocacy, leadership, and particularly his personal charisma, were important factors in advancing the Pentecostal snake handling and spreading it throughout the southeast United States. Coverage of Hensley's ministry was influential in prompting various churches to include the practice in their services. The media has focused on popular snake handlers such as Hensley, and the deaths of ministers due to snakebite have received particular attention.

The Church of God with Signs Following

Hensley was a minister of the Church of God, now known as the Church of God (Cleveland), founded by Richard Spurling and A. J. Tomlinson. In 1922, Hensley resigned from the Church of God, citing "trouble in the home"; his resignation marked the zenith of the practice of snake handling in the denomination, with the Church of God disavowing the practice of snake handling during the 1920s.

In the 1930s, he traveled the Southeast resuming his ministry and promoting the practice.^[4] If believers truly had the Holy Spirit within them, Hensley argued, they should be able to handle rattlesnakes and any number of other venomous serpents. They should also be able to drink poison and suffer no harm whatsoever. Snake handling as a test or demonstration of faith became popular wherever Hensley traveled and preached in the small towns of Tennessee, Kentucky, the Carolinas, Virginia, Ohio, and Indiana. Sister-churches later sprang up throughout the Appalachian region. In 1943, Hensley and Ramond Hayes, a young adherent of Hensley's teachings, started a church together in 1945, which they named the "Dolly Pond Church of God with Signs Following". Snake-handling churches influenced by Hensley's ministry are broadly known as the Church of God with Signs Following. In July 1955, Hensley died following a snakebite received during a service he was conducting in Altha, Florida.

The Church of Lord Jesus with Signs Following

Serpent-handling in north Alabama and north Georgia originated with James Miller in Sand Mountain, Alabama, at about the same time. Miller apparently developed his belief independently of any knowledge of Hensley's ministry. Whereas Hensley's ministry was trinitarian, the snake-handling churches influenced by Miller's ministry are non-trinitarian, and are broadly known as the Church of Lord Jesus with Signs Following. This version dominates snake-handling churches north of the Appalachians.^{[5] [6]}

Prevalence

Each church body is independent and autonomous, and the denominational name is not consistent in all areas. However they are typically some variation of the name "Church of God" (Trinitarian) or "Church of (Lord) Jesus" (Oneness).

The exact membership is unknown, and has recently been estimated as low as 1,000 and as high as 5,000 with possibly fifty to a hundred congregations. According to the Encyclopedia of American Religions, churches "can be found from central Florida to West Virginia and as far west as Columbus, Ohio." The snake-handling sect of beliefs and practices go as far as to cross the border into Western Canada in 2004 to Lethbridge and Edmonton, Alberta.

Most religious snake handlers are still found in the Appalachian Mountains and other parts of the southeastern United States, especially in Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. In 2001, about 40 small churches practiced snake handling, most of them considered to be Holiness, Pentecostals, or Charismatics. In 2004, there were four snake-handling congregations in the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia, Canada.^[7]

Ralph Hood, professor of social psychology and the psychology of religion at the University of Tennessee, who has studied the snake handling movement, indicated in 2003 that the practice is "currently at a fairly low ebb of popularity".^[8] A 2013 article by NPR gave a figure of "about 125" churches where snakes are handled, but also indicated that "snake handlers are notoriously private".^[9]

Common doctrines

Biblical foundation and "signs following"

Practitioners believe serpent handling dates to antiquity and quote the Gospel of Mark (chapter 16) and the Gospel of Luke to support the practice:

Churches that practice snake handling and drinking poison as a demonstration of the strength of their faith during worship services frequently describe themselves with the phrase "with sign following"; this is based on a literal interpretation of the following biblical passage which they cite for biblical validation:

These passages are part of the longer ending of Mark which many biblical scholars regard as a later addition to the manuscript tradition and it is noted as such in many modern translations of the Bible, such as the New International Version.^[10] However, the longer ending is part of the received text and the canonical status of these passages is rarely disputed.

Another passage from the New Testament used to support snake handlers' beliefs is 28:1-6 KJV, which relates that Paul was bitten by a venomous viper and suffered no harm:

Only snake-handling churches interpret these passages as a call to handle serpents, while others dispute these interpretations.

Practices

As in the early days, worshipers are still encouraged to lay hands on the sick, speak in tongues, provide testimony of miracles, and occasionally consume poisons such as strychnine. Worship services usually include singing, praying, speaking in tongues, and preaching. The front of the church, behind the pulpit, is the designated area for handling snakes. Rattlesnakes, cottonmouths, and copperheads (venomous snakes native to North America) are the most common, but even cobras have been used. During the service, believers may approach the front and pick up the snakes, usually raising them into the air and sometimes allowing the snakes to slither on their bodies. Handling the snakes is not compulsory for those attending services. Some believers will also engage in drinking poison (most commonly strychnine) at this time.

Although individual incidents may actually be understood in a variety of ways, those who die from snakebites are never criticized for lack of adequate faith; it is believed that it was simply the deceased's time to die.^[11] Bitten believers usually do not seek medical help, but look to God for their healing. They fully believe that adherents need to handle the snakes as a demonstration of their having the Holy Spirit within. Darlene Summerford, when asked how it felt to handle venomous serpents, replied, "It's just knowing you got power over them snakes". And, if they get bitten by the snake, then they lack the true Spirit. Moreover, if they are bitten, then the congregation prays over them. If they die, then God intended for that to happen.^[11]

Legal issues

Legality

All Appalachian states except West Virginia outlawed the snake-handling ritual when it first emerged. The states of Alabama, Kentucky, and Tennessee have passed laws against the use of venomous snakes or other reptiles that endangers the lives of others without a permit.

The Kentucky law specifically mentions religious services; in Kentucky snake handling is a misdemeanor and punishable by a $50 to $100 fine.^[12]

Snake handling is legal in the state of West Virginia, as the current state constitution does not allow any law to impede upon nor promote a religious practice.^[13]

Snake handling was made a felony punishable by death under Georgia law in 1941, following the death of a seven-year-old from a rattlesnake bite. However, the punishment was so severe that juries would refuse to convict, and the law was repealed in 1968.^[14]

The American Civil Liberties Union has defended the religious freedom of snake handlers against various attempts to have the practice banned.

Manslaughter and murder

In 1992, Glenn Summerford, a serpent-handling preacher, was convicted of attempted murder of his wife with a rattlesnake, by forcing her to be bitten on two occasions, at their home.^{[15] [16]} During the trial, some members of the congregation sided with Glenn Summerford, and others with his wife, Darlene. Each Summerford accused the other of infidelity, and "backsliding" from their faith by drinking alcohol. Dennis Covington, a journalist who covered the Summerford trial^[17] discusses his first-hand, investigative experiences at a snake-handling church in Appalachia, in his book, Salvation on Sand Mountain.

Possession and transportation of venomous snakes

In July 2008, ten people were arrested and 125 venomous snakes were confiscated as part of an undercover sting operation titled "Twice Shy". Pastor Gregory James Coots of the Full Gospel Tabernacle in Jesus' Name (FGTJN) in Middlesboro, Kentucky, was arrested and 74 snakes seized from his home as part of the sting.^[18]

Jamie Coots (son of Gregory Coots) was cited in 2013 for illegal possession and transportation of venomous snakes when three rattlesnakes and two copperheads were discovered in his vehicle during a vehicle check in Knoxville, Tennessee.^[19] Later in 2013, Coots published an op-ed in The Wall Street Journal making an argument for U.S. Constitutional protection regarding religious freedom, especially freedom to practice the unique variety of religion found in snake-handling churches.^[20] Coots died on 15 February 2014 from a snakebite.^[21]

Andrew Hamblin, who appeared alongside Jamie Coots in Snake Salvation, was cited for having dangerous wildlife in 2014, but a grand jury declined to indict him.^[22]

Risks

The handling of venomous snakes has significant risks. Ralph Hood observes, "If you go to any serpent-handling church, you'll see people with atrophied hands, and missing fingers. All the serpent-handling families have suffered such things".^[8] Jamie Coots, a pastor who subsequently died from a snakebite, said, "Handlers get bitten all the time, and every few years someone dies".^[23]

Various figures for the total number of deaths from snakebite during religious services have been proposed:

• "over 100 documented deaths" (2003) by Ralph Hood.^[8]
• "around 120" (2005) by Robert Winston.^[24]
• "about 100 deaths" (2013) by Julia Duin, a journalist who has covered snake handling churches and is writing a book on the subject.^[25]
• "91 documented snake bite deaths" (2015) by Paul Williamson, professor of psychology at Henderson State University and co-author of books with Ralph Hood.^[26]
• "105 cases that were found in literature."(2015) by Amy Waters.^[27]

Another source indicates that 35 people died between 1936 and 1973.^[28]

Hood also notes that the practice does not present a danger to observers. There is no documented case of a non-handling member being bitten by a serpent handled by another believer.^[29]

Media coverage

A number of films and television programs have been made about religious snake handling.

• Holy Ghost People is a 1967 documentary by Peter Adair. It is about the service of a snake handling Pentecostal community in Scrabble Creek, West Virginia, United States. This documentary has entered the public domain and is available at the Internet Archive.
• Heaven Come Down is a 2006 television documentary film about some unusual worship practices of some Pentecostal Christians in Appalachia, including snake handling.
• Snake Salvation is a 2013 series produced by the National Geographic Channel, comprising 16 episodes in a reality television format.^[30] The show featured two modern snake-handling pastors and their congregations. The show's focus was on Jamie Coots, who subsequently died of a snakebite. The other featured pastor was Andrew Hamblin, pastor of the Tabernacle Church of God in LaFollette, Tennessee. Hamblin, a protégé of Coots, was worshiping at his mentor's church alongside Coots when the fatal snake bite occurred in February 2014.^[31]
• Them That Follow is a Sundance Film Nominee about a small Church and community that practices this religion. The film stars Walton Goggins.
• Alabama Snake is a 2020 HBO documentary which focuses on the 1991 attempted murder of Darlene Summerford by her husband, snake handling pastor Glenn Summerford.^[32]

Known snake-handling churches

Alabama

• Old Rock House Holiness Church, Section (sometimes "Old" is omitted or "Rock House" written as a single word)^{[15] [33]}

Georgia

• Church of the Lord Jesus Christ, Kingston^[34]
• New River Holiness Church, Enigma^{[35] [36]}
• Wades Chapel, Cartersville^[37]

Indiana

• Highway Holiness Church of God, Fort Wayne (sometimes written as "Hi-Way")^{[22] [38]}

Kentucky

• Church of Jesus Christ, Baxter^[39]
• Crockett Saylor Pentecostal Church, Crockett
• East London Holiness Church, London^[40]
• Free Pentecostal House of Prayer, Gray^[41]
• Full Gospel Tabernacle in Jesus Name, Middlesboro^[19]
• Mossie Simpson Pentecostal Church, Jenson^[42]

North Carolina

• Unnamed church, Marshall^[43]

South Carolina

• Holiness Church of God in Jesus Name, Greenville^[44]

Tennessee

• Apostolic Church of God of the Lord Jesus, Greeneville^[45]
• Cobb Creek Church of God, Thomasville^[46]
• Edwina Church of God in Jesus Name, Del Rio^[47]
• Holiness Church of God in Jesus Name, Carson Springs^[48]
• House of Prayer in Jesus Name, Morristown^[49]
• Tabernacle Church of God, LaFollette^{[50] [51]}

Virginia

• Arthurs Chapel, Rose Hill^[52]

West Virginia

• Church of the Lord Jesus, Jolo^{[53] [54]}
• House of the Lord Jesus, Matoaka^[55]
• House of the Lord Jesus, Squire^[56]
• Lord Jesus Temple, Mile Branch^[57]

Notable deaths

See main article: List of fatal snake bites in the United States.

• The first report of a death from a serpent bite occurred in 1922 at the Church of God Evangel.^[16]
• In 1955, George Went Hensley, the founder of modern snake handling in the Appalachian Mountains, died after being bitten by a rattlesnake during a service in Altha, Florida.^{[24] [58] [59]}
• In 1961, Columbia Chafin Hagerman died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake during a service at the Church of the Lord Jesus, Jolo, West Virginia.^{[53] [60]}
• In 1967, Jean Saylor, wife of a snake-handling preacher, died after being bitten by a rattlesnake in Bell County, Kentucky.^[61]
• In 1982, Rev John Holbrook died after being bitten by a rattlesnake during a service in Oceana, WV.^{[62] [63] [64] [65]}
• In 1983, Mack Ray Wolford died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake during a service at the Lord Jesus Temple in Mile Branch, near Iaeger, West Virginia.^{[66] [65] [67] [68]}
• In 1995, Melinda Brown of Parrottsville, Tennessee, died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake during a service at the Full Gospel Tabernacle in Jesus Name in Middlesboro, Kentucky.^{[18] [28] [43] [69] [70]}
• In 1995, Kale Saylor (husband of Jean), a Pentecostal preacher, died after being bitten by a rattlesnake during a service at Crockett Saylor Pentecostal Church in Crockett, Kentucky.^[61]
• In 1997, Daril Colins died after being bitten by a snake during a service in Bell County, Kentucky.^[61]
• In 1998, John Wayne "Punkin" Brown (husband of Melinda), a snake-handling evangelist, died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake during a service at the Rock House Holiness Church in rural northeastern Alabama.^{[28] [71]}
• In 2004, Dwayne Long, a Pentecostal pastor, died after being bitten by a rattlesnake during a service in Rose Hill, Lee County, Virginia.^{[72] [73] [52]}
• In 2006, Linda Long died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake during a service at East London Holiness Church, London, Kentucky.^{[40] [74] [75] [76]}
• In 2012, Mark Randall "Mack" Wolford (son of Mack), a Pentecostal pastor, died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake while officiating at an outdoor service at Panther Wildlife Management Area, West Virginia.^{[68] [77]}
• In 2014, Jamie Coots died after being bitten by a timber rattlesnake during a service at the Full Gospel Tabernacle in Jesus Name in Middlesboro, Kentucky.^{[31] [70]} Coots starred in the TV series Snake Salvation and his death was widely reported.^[78]
• In 2015, John Brock died after being bitten by a rattlesnake during a service at Mossie Simpson Pentecostal Church in Jenson, Kentucky.^{[42] [79]}

In popular culture

• In the 1992 film Guncrazy, Billy Drago plays a small-town preacher who utilizes live snakes in his sermons.
• In 2013, during the fourth season of FX's Justified, actor Joseph Mazzello played Preacher Billy,^[80] a fearless snake handler, who hosted tent revivals in Harlan County, Kentucky.^[80]
• Gospel singer Wendy Bagwell's song "Here Come the Rattlesnakes" describes his Gospel band, Wendy Bagwell and the Sunliters, performing in a small, remote Kentucky church that practiced rattlesnake handling.^{[81] [82]}
• In the third episode of the fourth season of The Simpsons, "Homer the Heretic", Homer invites bartender Moe Szyslak to join his religion, to which Moe replies: "Sorry, Homer. I was born a snake handler, and I'll die a snake handler." whilst revealing hands covered in bites, bruises and adhesive bandages.^[83]
• In the ninth episode of the seventh season of The X Files, "Signs and Wonders," Scully and Mulder investigate the death of a young man who used to be a member of a serpent-handling church.^[84]
• In the fifth episode of the third season of The Righteous Gemstones Peter Montgomery is shown using this practice in the church where he preaches.
• In the podcast Alabama Astronauts, songwriter and artist Abe Partridge and Houston Chronicle podcast producer, Ferrill Gibbs, search for undocumented music found in the churches services of serpent handlers and chronicle the subculture's history in a series of episodic field-notes.

See also

• Serpent symbolism

Bibliography

Books

• Book: Bultmann, Rudolf . The History of the Synoptic Tradition . 1963 . Blackwell . Oxford, England .
• Book: Burton, Thomas G. . Serpent-handling Believers . 1993 . . Knoxville, Tennessee . 978-0-87049-788-9 .
• Book: Duin, Julia C. . In the House of the Serpent Handler: A Story of Faith and Fleeting Fame in the Age of Social Media . 2017 . . Knoxville, Tennessee . 978-1-62190-375-8 .
• Book: Hood . Ralph W. . Hill . Peter C. . Williamson . William Paul . The Psychology of Religious Fundamentalism . 2005 . Guilford Press . New York, New York . 978-1-59385-150-7 . .
• Book: Hood . Ralph W. . Williamson . William Paul . Them That Believe: The Power and Meaning of the Christian Serpent-handling Tradition . 2008 . University of California Press . Berkeley and Los Angeles, California . 978-0-520-25587-6 . .
• Book: Kimbrough, David L. . Taking Up Serpents: Snake Handlers of Eastern Kentucky . 2002 . Mercer University Press . Macon, Georgia . 978-0-86554-798-8 .
• Book: Leonard, Bill J. . Peter W. . Williams . Perspectives on American Religion and Culture . 1999 . Wiley-Blackwell . Malden, Massachusetts . The Bible and Serpent Handling . 978-1-57718-118-7 . registration .
• Dennis Covington

Salvation on Sand Mountain: Snake Handling and Salvation in Southern Appalachia: New York: Penguin: 1996.

• Fred Brown and Jeanne MacDonald: The Serpent Handlers: Three Families and Their Faith: Winston-Salem: J.F.Blair: 2000.
• Weston La Barre

They shall take up serpents: The psychology of the Southern Snake Handling Cult: University of Minnesota Press: 1962.

• Jim Morrow and Ralph Hood: Handling Serpents: Pastor Jimmy Morrow's Narrative History of his Appalachian Jesus' Name Tradition: Macon: Mercer University Press: 2005.
• Pond, Lauren. 2017. Test of Faith: Signs, Serpents, Salvation. Duke University Press.

Articles

• Hood . Ralph W. . Williamson . William Paul . Differential Maintenance and Growth of Religious Organizations Based upon High-Cost Behaviors: Serpent Handling within the Church of God . Review of Religious Research . December 2004 . 46 . 2 . 150–68 . . 10.2307/3512230 . 3512230 .
• Stephen Kane: "Ritual Possession in a Southern Appalachian Religious Sect" The Journal of American Folklore: 27:348 (October–December 1974): 293–302.
• Paul Williamson and Ralph Hood Jr: "Differential Maintenance and Growth of Religious Organisations Based on High-Cost Behaviours: Serpent Handling with the Church of God" Review of Religious Research: 46:2 (December 2004): 150–168.
• Paul W. Williamson and Howard R. Pollo: "The Phenomenology of Religious Serpent Handling: A Rationale and Thematic Study of Extemporaneous Sermons" Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion: 38:2 (June 1999): 203–218.

External links

• The Washington Post photo gallery
• University of Virginia article on serpent handlers
• Vice Magazine interview with Andrew Hamblin
• Taking Up Serpents – by Andrea Perkins
• Chattanooga Times Free Press article on snake handlers
• MA thesis on Appalachian snake handling
• Ralph W. Hood and W. Paul Williamson Holiness Churches of Appalachia Recordings and Interviews

Notes and References

1. Joseph Campbell & M. J. Abadie (1981). The Mythic Image. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 296.
2. Tuomas Rasimus (2007). "The Serpent in Gnostic and Related Texts". In Painchaud, Louis; Poirier, Paul-Hubert (eds.). L'Évangile selon Thomas et les textes de Nag Hammadi: Colloque International. Presses Université Laval, p. 804.
3. Encyclopedia of American Religions gives the year as 1909; the Encyclopedia of Religion in the South gives it as 1913.
4. Book: Anderson, Robert Mapes. Vision of the Disinherited: The Making of American Pentecostalism. registration. 1979. Oxford University Press. New York, New York; Oxford. 263. 978-0-19-502502-6 .
5. Web site: Snake Handlers. cerm.info. 29 June 2017. 22 July 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160722140423/http://www.cerm.info/bible_studies/Apologetics/snake_handlers.htm. dead.
6. Web site: v . Sandy . 5 February 2010 . The Handkerchief Phenomenon . deceptioninthechurch.com . Apologetics Coordination Team . 29 June 2017.
7. Book: Eason, Cassandra. Fabulous Creatures, Mythical Monsters, and Animal Power Symbols: A Handbook. 1 January 2008. Greenwood Publishing Group. 9780275994259. Google Books.
8. News: Handwerk . Brian . Snake Handlers Hang on in Appalachian Churches . 7 April 2003 . National Geographic News . https://web.archive.org/web/20030408010122/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0407_030407_snakehandlers.html. dead. 8 April 2003.
9. Web site: John. Burnett. Snake-Handling Preachers Open Up About 'Takin' Up Serpents'. NPR.
10. 16:8-20 NIV
11. News: Duin . Julia . In WVA, Snake Handling is still considered a sign of faith . The Washington Post. 11 August 2014.
12. Web site: Snakes and church vs. state. Danny. Cevallos. 26 February 2014. CNN.
13. Book: Bastress, Robert . The West Virginia Constitution: A Reference Guide . 1995. Greenwood Press . Westport, CT . 102–103 . 0313274096.
14. Book: Ruthven, Malise . The Divine Supermarket . Chatto & Windus . 1989 . London . 291 . 0-7011-3151-9.
15. Web site: Snake Kills Evangelist – HiddenMysteries Spiritual Studies. hiddenmysteries.org. 24 April 2016. 25 June 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160625050929/http://www.hiddenmysteries.org/religion/pentecostal/snakeskill-fool.shtml. dead.
16. Web site: history of snake handling . The Tennessean . 30 July 2014.
17. News: Alabama Trial Involves Snakes And Bit of Faith. Dennis. Covington. The New York Times . 15 February 1992. 12 September 2021. 12 December 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201212215605/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/02/15/us/alabama-trial-involves-snakes-and-bit-of-faith.html. live.
18. News: Alford . Roger . Pastor among suspects in illegal snake bust . 12 July 2008 . Associated Press . 12 July 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080803025928/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2008%2F07%2F11%2Fnational%2Fa183128D08.DTL . 3 August 2008 . dead.
19. News: Kentucky Pastor Wants Snakes Confiscated in Knoxville Bust . . 13 February 2013 . 13 February 2013 . 3 December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131203093402/http://www.knoxnews.com/news/2013/feb/13/ky-pastor-wants-snakes-confiscated-in-tenn/ . dead .
20. Web site: Coots . Jamie . The Constitution Protects My Snake-Handling . 3 October 2013 . The Wall Street Journal.
21. News: Pastor Dies After Snake He Was Handling Bit Him . WBIR.com . 16 February 2014.
22. Web site: Grand jury declines to indict Campbell County preacher in snake handling case . 8 January 2014.
23. News: Burnett . John . Serpent Experts Try To Demystify Pentecostal Snake Handling . 18 October 2013 . NPR.
24. Web site: Winston . Robert . Why do we believe in God? . The Guardian. London . 13 October 2005.
25. News: Julia. Duin. 'Snake Salvation': Inside the World of Christian Serpent Handlers . 10 September 2013 . . 23 April 2016.
26. Web site: Despite pastor's death, followers are still handling snakes . CBS News. 26 February 2014 .
27. . Waters . Amy . 2018 . Social-Envenomation: A Ritual of Snake-Handling Churches .
28. Web site: Ford . Mike . Should Christians Handle Snakes? . cgg.org . August 2003 . 29 June 2017.
29. Web site: Hood . Ralph W. . Them that Believe: The Power and Meaning of the Serpent-Handling Tradition . religiousstudiesproject.com . 11 August 2014.
30. Web site: National Geographic TV Shows, Specials & Documentaries . National Geographic Channel.
31. Web site: Estep . Bill . Snakebite death of Middlesboro pastor was quick, son says; medical treatment refused . Lexington Herald Leader . 12 November 2015.
32. News: Schager . Nick . 7 December 2020 . The Appalachian Preacher Who Tried to Murder His Wife via Snake Bite. The Daily Beast . 8 December 2020.
33. Web site: Pastor Billy Summerford in Section . Encyclopedia of Alabama.
34. News: Shelton . Steve . Taking up serpents . 28 June 1996 . Augusta Chronicle .
35. Web site: News Capsules. Deseret News. 18 January 1995.
36. Web site: Newswatch . https://web.archive.org/web/20230831222202/https://www.tampabay.com/archive/1995/01/29/newswatch/ . dead . 31 August 2023 . Zucco. Tom. 3 October 2005.
37. News: Snake Handlers. New Georgia Encyclopedia. 8 July 2013. Kelle. Brad.
38. Web site: Jolo Journal; When the Faithful Tempt the Serpent . 11 September 1992 . The New York Times.
39. Web site: Woman killed by snake in mountain religious service. 13 February 1986. United Press International.
40. News: Woman fatally bitten by snake in church . . . 8 November 2006 . 13 January 2014.
41. Web site: Appalachian snake handlers put their faith in God—and increasingly, doctors. National Geographic. Duin. Julia. 2021-02-01.
42. Web site: Kentucky man dies after snake bite during church service.
43. News: Cabell . Brian . Custody of 'snake-bite orphans' split between grandparents . . 12 February 1999 . 13 January 2014.
44. Book: Morrow, Jimmy . Handling Serpents . . 2005 . 8 . 0-86554-848-X.
45. Charles Prince: Martyr for His Faith?. Kimbrough. David. Appalachian Heritage . 1994. 22 . 2 . 31–38 . 10.1353/aph.1994.0026 .
46. Web site: Reid . Michael . December 2013 . COBB CREEK CHURCH: CHANGING PERSPECTIVES IN A SERPENT-HANDLING CONGREGATION IN EAST TENNESSEE . Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange.
47. News: History of serpent handling fraught with danger, exultation. Kathy. Ross. 13 June 2020. The Mountaineer.
48. News: They shall take up serpents. Lisa. Alther. 6 June 1976. The New York Times.
49. News: Bluefield Daily Telegraph Archives, Jul 16, 1991, p. 1 . 16 July 1991. Bluefield Daily Telegraph .
50. News: Reviving Faith by 'Taking Up Serpents'. Julia. Duin. 7 April 2012. The Wall Street Journal.
51. News: Smietana . Bob . Snake-Handling Believers Find Joy in Test of Faith . 3 June 2012 . 3 June 2012.
52. Web site: Sarasota Herald-Tribune – Google News Archive Search .
53. News: Julia . Duin . In W.Va., snake handling is still considered a sign of faith . 18 October 2011. The Washington Post.
54. Web site: Dorgan . Howard . Serpent Handling at Jolo, West Virginia and the Legitimacy of the Marcan Appendix . https://web.archive.org/web/20060908161603/http://www.library.appstate.edu/appcoll/manuscript/coll116/serpent.html . . 8 September 2006 . 29 October 2008.
55. Web site: Duin . Julia . Death of snake handling preacher shines light on lethal Appalachian tradition . 1 July 2012 . CNN.
56. Web site: The passion of West Virginia's last snake-handling church. Miss. Rosen. 9 February 2023. Huck.
57. Web site: WEB EXTRA: 1983 Daily Telegraph story detailing the death of Wolford’s father, also from a snake bite. Bluefield Daily Telegraph. 2012-06-01.
58. News: Times–News staff . Faith Remains Despite Fatal Bite of Chief . 2 February 2012 . Times–News . 27 July 1955 . Hendersonville, North Carolina . 3.
59. Web site: Brown . Joi . Snake Handling in the Pentecostal Church: The Precedent Set by George Hensley . https://web.archive.org/web/20050718082326/http://athena.english.vt.edu/~appalach/essaysS/snakes.htm . . 18 July 2005 . 13 January 2014.
60. Web site: Faith strong at service for snake handlers – Lubbock Online – Lubbock Avalanche-Journal . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160512183251/http://lubbockonline.com/stories/120698/LA0504.shtml . 12 May 2016.
61. Web site: Ward . Karla . Man dies after being bitten while handling snake during Bell County church service . 28 July 2015.
62. Web site: Lakeland Ledger – Google News Archive Search .
63. Web site: Chicago Tribune – Historical Newspapers . Chicago Tribune.
64. News: Mathews . Garret . 'Praise-the-Lord-and-pass-the-snake' service is a trip, if you can handle it . https://archive.today/20130131195352/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/638481842.html?dids=638481842:638481842&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Apr+03,+1983&author=&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc='Praise-the-Lord-and-pass-the-snake'+service+is+a+trip,+if+you+can+handle+it&pqatl=google . dead . 31 January 2013 . Chicago Tribune. 3 April 1983 . J3 . 23 September 2013.
65. Web site: The Lewiston Journal – Google News Archive Search .
66. News: Web Extra: 1983 Daily Telegraph story detailing the death of Wolford's father, also from a snake bite . Bluefield Daily Telegraph . 30 August 1983 . 12 June 2012.
67. News: Snake Bite Proves Fatal . Daily Sitka Sentinel . Sitka, Alaska . 31 August 1983 . 7 . Newspapers.com.
68. News: Duin . Julia . Serpent-handling pastor profiled earlier in Washington Post dies from rattlesnake bite . . 30 May 2012 . 13 January 2014.
69. Web site: Months after snake-handling preacher's death, his son recovering from snakebite . 24 April 2016 . 15 April 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160415165136/http://www.kentucky.com/news/hot-topics/article44490747.html . dead .
70. Web site: Snake Salvation pastor dies from snake bite . 17 February 2014 . BBC .
71. News: Jackson . Wayne . Sincere but Wrong-Dead Wrong . christiancourier.com. Christian Courier .
72. Web site: Snakebite proves fatal to minister . 15 April 2004 . Kingsport Publishing Corporation . sullivan-county.com.
73. Web site: Hammack . Laurence . For snake handlers, going to church can prove deadly . USA . Roanoke Times . 18 April 2004 . Religion News Blog.
74. Web site: Heller . Matthew . Nurse Sued for Dissing Faith of Bitten Snake-Handler – Medicine. https://web.archive.org/web/20160531070810/http://www.onpointnews.com/NEWS/nurse-sued-for-dissing-faith-of-bitten-snake-handler.html . dead . 31 May 2016 .
75. Web site: Woman Dies After Snakebite in Church . CBS News . 7 November 2006.
76. Web site: Woman fatally bitten by snake in church . . 8 November 2006.
77. News: Pond . Lauren. Why I watched a snake-handling pastor die for his faith . 31 May 2012 . The Washington Post.
78. A google search reveals numerous reports.
79. Web site: Phil . Pendleton . Man dies of snake bite during church service in Bell County.
80. Web site: The new preacher man on 'Justified' is the little boy from 'Jurassic Park'. Yahoo!. 8 January 2013 .
81. Web site: Laugh & a Half. 21 January 1994. Amazon.
82. Web site: Wendy Bagwell The Rattlesnake Story . https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/L_mgrSv79BI. 11 December 2021 . live. Proverbs243 . 22 August 2013 . YouTube.
83. Web site: Homer the Heretic . The Simpsons Archive . 26 January 2023.
84. News: Silber . Kenneth . The X-Files – 'Signs and Wonders' . . TechMediaNetwork . 30 June 2000 . 5 January 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20050207160939/http://space.com/sciencefiction/tv/xfiles_709_000124.html . 7 February 2005.