The grammar of the Slovincian language is characterized by a high degree of inflection, a lack of articles, and vowel, consonant, and stress alternations.
Slovincian has an inflectional system mostly inherited from Proto-Slavic, with many innovations.
Slovincian has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter; three numbers: singular, dual, and plural; and seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative.
The vocative is largely replaced by the nominative, but masculine animate singular and a few feminine singular nouns retain it.
The genitive-locative dual has been almost entirely replaced by the plural equivalents, and only few words kept their original forms, e.g.:
The nominative-accusative-vocative dual is found with masculine and feminine nouns and also with monosyllabic neuter stems in stems with non-alternating final consonants ending with ⟨-ô⟩ and in the word ˈjajê ("egg"). The dative-instrumental dual only occurs with monosyllabic stems.
Nouns can either have non-alternating final stem consonants or alternating final stem consonants. The non-alternating consonants are ⟨s, z, sz, cz, ż, dż, rz, l, j⟩, and the alternating consonants are ⟨p, b, f, v, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩.
Masculine nouns can end in alternating (⟨p, b, f, v, t, d, k, g, ch, gh, m, n, r⟩) and non-alternating (⟨s, z, sz, ż, rz, l, j⟩) consonants, a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ (opa), and alternating consonants ending with ⟨-ë⟩ (kamë). The last group is small and shows an irregular alternation in the non-nominative cases in the singular and all cases in the plural:
A few masculine nouns ending in alternating consonants add ⟨j⟩ to the stem when declined. Some nouns with ⟨ej⟩ will add ⟨j⟩, others will not.
Many masculine nouns whose stem ends in ⟨c⟩ and ⟨z⟩ alternate with ⟨cz⟩ and ⟨ż⟩ in the vocative singular.
| Stressed | Non-stressed | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singular | Plural | Dual | ||||||
| animate | inanimate | virile | nonvirile | animate | inanimate | virile | nonvirile | ||||
| Nominative | -∅ | -ˈë, -ˈê | -ˈa | -∅ | -ë, -i, -ôwje | -a | |||||
| Genitive | -ˈa, -ˈú | -ˈó, -ˈy | = | -a, -ú | -ó, -∅, -i | = | |||||
| Dative | -ˈú | -ˈóm | -ˈôma | -ú, -ôjú, -ejú | -óm (-im) | -ôma | |||||
| Accusative | -ˈa | -∅ | -ˈó | -ˈë | -ˈa | -a | -∅ | -ó | -ë, -i | -a | |
| Instrumental | -ˈã | -amˈy (-ˈmy, -ˈy) | -ˈôma | -ã | -amy (-my, -i) | -ôma | |||||
| Locative | -ˈú, -ˈê | -ˈach (-ˈéch) | = | -ú, -ê | -ach (-éch, -ich) | = | |||||
| Vocative | colspan="2" | -ˈú | -ˈë, -ˈê | -ˈa | -ú, -ê | = | -a | ||||
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈchlôp∅ | ˈchlôpji/ˈchlôpë | ˈchlôpa | |
| Genitive | ˈchlôpa | ˈchlôp∅/ˈchlôpó | = | |
| Dative | ˈchlôpú/ˈchlôpôjú | ˈchlôpóm | ˈchlôpôma | |
| Accusative | ˈchlôpa | ˈchlôpó | ˈchlôpa | |
| Instrumental | ˈchlôpã | ˈchlôpy/ˈchlôpmy/ˈchlôpamy | ˈchlôpôma | |
| Locative | ˈchlôpjê | ˈchlôpjéch/ˈchlôpach | = | |
| Vocative | ˈchlôpjê | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈbrat∅ | ˈbracë/ˈbratë/ˈbraco | ˈbrata |
| Genitive | ˈbrata | ˈbrató | = |
| Dative | ˈbratú | ˈbratóm | ˈbratôma/ˈbratma |
| Accusative | ˈbrata | ˈbrató | ˈbrata |
| Instrumental | ˈbratã | ˈbraty/ˈbratmy/ˈbratamy | ˈbratôma/ˈbratma |
| Locative | ˈbracê | ˈbracéch/ˈbratach | = |
| Vocative | ˈbracê | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈbrzég∅ | ˈbrzêgji | ˈbrzêga |
| Genitive | ˈbrzêgú | ˈbrzêgó | = |
| Dative | ˈbrzêgú | ˈbrzêgóm | ˈbrzêgôma |
| Accusative | ˈbrzég∅ | ˈbrzêgji | ˈbrzêga |
| Instrumental | ˈbrzêgã | ˈbrzêgamy | ˈbrzêgôma |
| Locative | ˈbrzêgú | ˈbrzêgach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈwól∅ | ˈwôlôwje/ˈwôlë | ˈwôla |
| Genitive | ˈwôla | ˈwôló | = |
| Dative | ˈwôlôjú | ˈwôlóm | ˈwôlôma/ˈwólma |
| Accusative | ˈwôla | ˈwôlë | ˈwôla |
| Instrumental | ˈwôlã | wôlaˈmy/ˈwólmy | ˈwôlôma/ˈwólma |
| Locative | ˈwôlú | ˈwôlach | = |
| Vocative | ˈwôlê | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈpjês∅ | ˈpsë | ˈpsa |
| Genitive | ˈpsa | ˈpsó | = |
| Dative | ˈpsú | ˈpsóm | ˈpsëma |
| Accusative | ˈpsa | ˈpsë | ˈpsa |
| Instrumental | ˈpsã | psˈmy/psaˈmy | ˈpsëma |
| Locative | ˈpsú | ˈpsach | = |
| Vocative | psˈú | = | = |
| Singular | |
|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈlên∅ |
| Genitive | ˈlnú |
| Dative | ˈlnú |
| Accusative | ˈlên∅ |
| Instrumental | ˈlnã |
| Locative | ˈlnê |
| Vocative | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈksõdz∅ | ˈksãzɵwje/ˈksãzä | ˈksãza |
| Genitive | ˈksãza | ksąˈzó | = |
| Dative | ˈksãzú/ˈksãzôjú/ˈksãzejú | ksãˈzóm | ˈksãzôma/ˈksãzema |
| Accusative | ˈksãza | ksãˈzó | ˈksãza |
| Instrumental | ˈksãzã | ksãzˈmï/ksãzˈamy | ˈksãzôma/ˈksãzema |
| Locative | ˈksãzú | ksãˈzach | = |
| Vocative | ˈksãzê | ˈksãza | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkóń∅ | ˈkônji/ˈkônjë | ˈkônja |
| Genitive | ˈkônja | ˈkônjy/ˈkônjó | = |
| Dative | ˈkônjú/ˈkônjejú/ˈkônjôjú | ˈkônjim/ˈkônjóm | ˈkônjema/ˈkônjôma |
| Accusative | ˈkônja | ˈkônjë | ˈkônja |
| Instrumental | ˈkônjã | ˈkônjamy/ˈkônjmy/ˈkônjymy | ˈkônjema/ˈkônjôma |
| Locative | ˈkônjú | ˈkônjich/ˈkônjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkjˈêrz∅ | ˈkrzê | ˈkrza |
| Genitive | ˈkrza | ˈkrzó | = |
| Dative | ˈkrzú | ˈkrzóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈkjêrz∅ | ˈkrzê | ˈkrza |
| Instrumental | ˈkrzã | krzaˈmy | = |
| Locative | ˈkrzú | ˈkrzach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈgôsc∅ | ˈgôscë | ˈgôsca |
| Genitive | ˈgôsca | gôsˈcó | = |
| Dative | ˈgôscú/ˈgôscôjú/ˈgôscejú | gôsˈcóm | ˈgôscma/ˈgôscôma/ˈgôscema |
| Accusative | ˈgôsca | gôsˈcó | ˈgôsca |
| Instrumental | ˈgôscã | gôscˈmy/gôscaˈmy | ˈgôscma/ˈgôscôma/ˈgôscema |
| Locative | ˈgôscú | gôsˈcach | = |
| Vocative | ˈgôscú | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈmjêszczón∅ | ˈmjêszczónjë/ˈmjêszczónjë | ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczana |
| Genitive | ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczana | mjêszˈczón∅/mjêszˈczanó | = |
| Dative | ˈmjêszczónú/ˈmjêszczónôjú | mjêszˈczanóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczóna | mjêszˈczanó | ˈmjêszczóna/ˈmjêszczana |
| Instrumental | ˈmjêszczónã/ˈmjêszczanã | mjêszˈczanmy/mjêszˈczanamy/mjêszˈczany | = |
| Locative | ˈmjêszczónjê/ˈmjêszczanjê | mjêszˈczanach | = |
| Vocative | ˈmjêszczónjê/ˈmjêszczanjê | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkam∅/ˈkamä∅/ˈkamjêń∅ | ˈkamjênjë | ˈkamjênja |
| Genitive | ˈkamjênja | kaˈmjênjó | = |
| Dative | ˈkamjênjú | kaˈmjênjóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈkam∅/ˈkamä∅/ˈkamjênj∅ | ˈkamjênjë | ˈkamjênja |
| Instrumental | ˈkamjênjã | kaˈmjenjmy/kaˈmjênjamy | = |
| Locative | ˈkamjênjê/kaˈmjênjú | kaˈmjênjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈdzeń∅ | ˈdnji | ˈdnja |
| Genitive | ˈdnja | ˈdnjó/ˈdnjy | = |
| Dative | ˈdnjú | ˈdnjóm | ˈdnjôma |
| Accusative | ˈdzeń∅ | ˈdnji | ˈdnja |
| Instrumental | ˈdnjã | dnjaˈmy | ˈdnjôma |
| Locative | ˈdnjú | ˈdnjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Non-stressed | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||
| virile | nonvirile | ||||
| Nominative | -a | -ë, -ôwje | -a | ||
| Genitive | -ë, -i, -a | -ó, -∅ | = | ||
| Dative | -ê, -ôjú, -ejú | -óm (-im) | -ôma | ||
| Accusative | -ã | -ó, -∅ | -ë | -a | |
| Instrumental | -õ, -ã | -amy (-my, -y) | -ôma | ||
| Locative | -y -ú, -ê | -ach (-éch, -ich) | = | ||
| Vocative | -ú, -ë | = | -a | ||
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈopa | ˈopë | ˈopa |
| Genitive | ˈopë/ˈopa | ˈopó | = |
| Dative | ˈopjê/ˈopôjú | ˈopóm | ˈopôma |
| Accusative | ˈopã | ˈopë | ˈopa |
| Instrumental | ˈopõ | ˈopamy/ˈopmy | ˈopôma |
| Locative | ˈopjê | ˈopach | = |
| Vocative | ˈopjê | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈbùla | ˈbùlë | ˈbùla |
| Genitive | ˈbùlë | bùˈló | = |
| Dative | ˈbùlôjú | bùˈlóm | ˈbùlôma |
| Accusative | ˈbùlã | ˈbùlë | ˈbùla |
| Instrumental | ˈbùlõ/ˈbùlã | bùlaˈmy | ˈbùlôma |
| Locative | bùˈlú | bùˈlach | = |
| Vocative | ˈbùlú | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈtwórca | ˈtwórcôwje | ˈtwórca |
| Genitive | ˈtwórcë/ˈtwórca | ˈtwórcó | = |
| Dative | ˈtwórcôjú/ˈtwórcejú | ˈtwórcóm | ˈtwórcôma |
| Accusative | ˈtwórcã | ˈtwórcä | ˈtwórca |
| Instrumental | ˈtwórcõ/ˈtwórcã | ˈtwórcamy | ˈtwórcôma |
| Locative | ˈtwórcú | ˈtwórcach | = |
| Vocative | ˈtwórcú | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | noˈżênja | ˈnożênjë | = |
| Genitive | noˈżênjë | noˈżênjó | = |
| Dative | ˈnożênjejú/ˈnożênjôjú | noˈżênjóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈnożênjã | noˈżênjó | = |
| Instrumental | ˈnożênjõ | noˈżênjamy | = |
| Locative | noˈżênjú | noˈżênjach | = |
| Vocative | noˈżênja | = | = |
Feminine nouns can end in a consonant, ⟨-a⟩, and ⟨-o⟩.
Feminine nouns ending in non-alternating consonants always add ⟨-j-⟩ to non-nominative cases except the genitive plural, which takes -∅.
A few feminine nouns end in ⟨-i⟩, ⟨-ëw⟩ (⟨-ew⟩), and ⟨-wja⟩. There are two nouns that end in ⟨-ë⟩ and two nouns that end in ⟨-é⟩:
It can be noticed that both masculine and feminine nouns can end in a consonant with ⟨-a⟩ ending. Masculine nouns ending in ⟨-a⟩ always refer to a male being and female nouns ending in ⟨-a⟩ a female being; the one exception is ˈslëga ("servant") and nouns ending in ⟨-ola⟩, which can refer to a person of either gender.
| Stressed | Non-stressed | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
| Nominative | -ˈa | -ˈë | -ˈê | -a | -ë, -i | -ê | |
| Genitive | -ˈë | -ˈó, -∅ | = | -ë, -i | -ó, -∅ | = | |
| Dative | -ˈê | -ˈóm | = | -ê | -óm (-im) | -óma | |
| Accusative | -ˈã | -ˈë | -ˈê | -ã | -ë, -i | -ê | |
| Instrumental | -ˈõ | -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy) | = | -õ | -amy (-my, -y) | -óma | |
| Locative | -ˈê | -ˈach (-ˈéch) | = | -ë | -ach (-éch, -ich) | = | |
| Vocative | = | = | -ˈê | -ô | = | -ê | |
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈrëba | ˈrëbë | ˈrëbjê |
| Genitive | ˈrëbë | ˈryb∅/ˈrëbó | = |
| Dative | ˈrëbjê | ˈrëbóm | ˈrëbóma |
| Accusative | ˈrëbã | ˈrëbë | ˈrëbjê |
| Instrumental | ˈrëbõ | ˈrëbamy/ˈrëby | ˈrëbóma |
| Locative | ˈrëbjê | ˈrëbach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈrãka | ˈrãkji | ˈrãcê |
| Genitive | ˈrãkji | ˈrãk∅/ˈrãkó | rãˈkú |
| Dative | ˈrãcê | rãˈkóm | ˈrãkóma |
| Accusative | ˈrãkã | ˈrãkji | ˈrãcê |
| Instrumental | rãˈkõ | rãkaˈmy | ˈrãkóma |
| Locative | ˈrãcê | rãˈkach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈskra | ˈskrë | ˈskrzê |
| Genitive | ˈskrë | ˈskê∅r/ˈskró | = |
| Dative | ˈskrzê | ˈskróm | = |
| Accusative | ˈskrã | ˈskrë | ˈskrzê |
| Instrumental | ˈskrõ | skraˈmy | = |
| Locative | ˈskrzê | ˈskrach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Stressed | Non-stressed | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
| Nominative | -ˈa | -ˈê, -ˈë | -ˈy | -a | -ë | -y | |
| Genitive | -ˈê, -ˈë | -ˈó, -∅, -ˈy | = | -ë | -∅, -y | = | |
| Dative | -ˈy | -ˈóm | = | -y | -óm (-im) | -óma | |
| Accusative | -ˈã | -ˈê, -ˈë | -ˈy | -ã | -ë | -y | |
| Instrumental | -ˈõ | -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy) | = | -õ | -amy (-my, -y) | -óma | |
| Locative | -ˈi | -ˈach (-ˈéch) | = | -i | -ach (-éch, -ich) | = | |
| Vocative | = | = | -ˈy | = | = | -y | |
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈtãcza | ˈtãczë | ˈtãczy |
| Genitive | ˈtãczë | ˈtãczy/ˈtãcz∅ | = |
| Dative | ˈtãczy | ˈtãczóm | ˈtãczóma |
| Accusative | ˈtãczã | ˈtãczë | ˈtãczy |
| Instrumental | ˈtãczõ | ˈtãczamy/ˈtãczmy | ˈtãczóma |
| Locative | ˈtãczy | ˈtãczach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈzêmja | ˈzêmjë | ˈzêmjy |
| Genitive | ˈzêmjë | ˈzem∅/zêˈmjó | = |
| Dative | ˈzêmjy | zêˈmjóm | ˈzêmjóma |
| Accusative | ˈzêmjã | ˈzêmjë | ˈzêmjy |
| Instrumental | zeˈmjõ | zêmjaˈmy | ˈzêmjóma |
| Locative | ˈzêmjy | zêˈmjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈsla | ˈslê | ˈsly |
| Genitive | ˈslê | ˈsêl∅ | = |
| Dative | ˈsly | ˈslóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈslã | ˈslê | ˈsly |
| Instrumental | ˈslõ | slaˈmy | = |
| Locative | ˈsly | ˈslach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkôsa | ˈkôsë | ˈkôsy |
| Genitive | ˈkôsë | ˈkôs∅/ˈkôsy | = |
| Dative | ˈkôsy | ˈkôsóm | ˈkôsóma |
| Accusative | ˈkôsã | ˈkôsë | ˈkôsy |
| Instrumental | ˈkôsõ | ˈkôsamy | ˈkôsóma |
| Locative | ˈkôsy | ˈkôsach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈlza | ˈlzë | ˈlzy |
| Genitive | ˈlzë | ˈzêl∅/ˈlzy | = |
| Dative | ˈlzy | ˈlzóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈlzã | ˈlzë | ˈlzy |
| Instrumental | ˈlzõ | lzaˈmy | = |
| Locative | ˈlzy | ˈlzach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈmac∅/ˈmacêrza | ˈmacêrzë | ˈmacêrzy |
| Genitive | ˈmacêrzë | maˈcéř∅/macêˈřyn | = |
| Dative | ˈmacêrzy | maˈcêrzóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈmac∅/ˈmacêrzã | ˈmacêrzë | ˈmacerzy |
| Instrumental | maˈcêrzõ | maˈcêrzmy/maˈcêrzamy | = |
| Locative | maˈcêrzy | maˈcêrzach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Stressed | Non-stressed | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
| Nominative | -ˈo | -ˈé | -ˈy | -o | -ë | -y | |
| Genitive | -ˈé | -ˈy | = | -é | -y, -∅ | = | |
| Dative | -ˈy | -óm | -óˈma | -y | -óm (-ym) | -óma | |
| Accusative | -ˈõ | -ˈé | -ˈy | -õ | -ë | -y | |
| Instrumental | -ˈõ | -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy) | -óˈma | -õ | -amy (-my, -y) | -óma | |
| Locative | -ˈi | -ˈach (-ˈéch) | = | -i | -ach (-éch, -ich) | = | |
| Vocative | = | = | -ˈy | = | = | -y | |
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ceˈnjo | ceˈnjé | ceˈnjy |
| Genitive | ceˈnjé | ceˈnjy | = |
| Dative | ceˈnjy | ceˈnjóm | = |
| Accusative | ceˈnjõ | ceˈnjé | ceˈnjy |
| Instrumental | ceˈnjõ | cenjaˈmy | = |
| Locative | ceˈnjy | ceˈnjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈmjêzo | ˈmjêzë | ˈmjêzy |
| Genitive | ˈmjêzé | ˈmjêz∅/ˈmjêzy | = |
| Dative | ˈmjêzy | ˈmjêzóm | ˈmjêzóma |
| Accusative | ˈmjêzõ | ˈmjêzë | ˈmjêzy |
| Instrumental | ˈmjêzõ | ˈmjêzamy/mjezˈmy | ˈmjêzóma |
| Locative | ˈmjêzy | ˈmjêzach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Stressed | Non-stressed | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
| Nominative | -∅ | -ˈë | -ˈy | -∅, -i, -a | -ë | -y | |
| Genitive | -ˈë, -ˈê | -ˈi, -∅ | = | -ë | -i, -ó, -∅, -ew | = | |
| Dative | -ˈy | -óm | = | -y | -óm (-ym) | -óma, -ma | |
| Accusative | -∅ | -ˈë | -ˈy | -∅ | -ë | -y | |
| Instrumental | -ˈõ | -aˈmy (-ˈmy, -ˈy) | = | -õ | -amy (-my, -y) | -óma, -ma | |
| Locative | -ˈy | -ˈach (-ˈéch) | = | -y, -ë | -ach (-éch, -ych) | = | |
| Vocative | = | = | -ˈy | = | = | -y | |
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈwôs∅ | ˈwôsë | ˈwôsy |
| Genitive | ˈwôsë | wôˈsy/ˈwôs∅ | = |
| Dative | ˈwôsy | wôˈsóm | ˈwôsma |
| Accusative | ˈwôs∅ | ˈwôsë | ˈwôsy |
| Instrumental | ˈwôsõ | wôsˈmy | ˈwôsma |
| Locative | ˈwôsy | wôˈsach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈmësz∅ | ˈmëszë | ˈmëszy |
| Genitive | ˈmëszë | ˈmëszy | = |
| Dative | ˈmëszy | ˈmëszim/ˈmëszóm | ˈmëszma/ˈmëszóma |
| Accusative | ˈmësz∅ | ˈmëszë | ˈmëszy |
| Instrumental | ˈmëszõ | ˈmëszmy/ˈmëszamy | ˈmëszma/ˈmëszóma |
| Locative | ˈmëszy | ˈmëszach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈchôrôsc∅ | ˈchôrôscë | ˈchôrôscy |
| Genitive | ˈchôrôscë | chôˈrôsc∅/chôˈrôscy | = |
| Dative | ˈchôrôscy | chôˈrôscóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈchôrôsc∅ | ˈchôrôscë | chôrôscy |
| Instrumental | chôˈrôscõ | chôˈrôscmy/chôˈrôscamy | = |
| Locative | chôˈrôscy/ˈchôrôscë | chôˈrôscach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈwjês∅ | ˈwsë | ˈwsy |
| Genitive | ˈwsë | ˈwsy | = |
| Dative | ˈwsy | ˈwsóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈwjês∅ | ˈwsë | ˈwsy |
| Instrumental | ˈwsõ | wsaˈmi | = |
| Locative | ˈwsy/ˈwsë | ˈwsach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈcérkji∅/ˈcérkjew∅ | ˈcérkwjë | ˈcérkwjy |
| Genitive | ˈcérkwjë | ˈcérkew∅/ˈcérkwjy/ˈcérkwjó | = |
| Dative | ˈcérkwjy | ˈcérkwjóm | ˈcérkwjóma |
| Accusative | ˈcérki∅/ˈcérkew∅ | ˈcérkwjë | ˈcérkwjy |
| Instrumental | ˈcérkwjõ | ˈcérkwjamy | ˈcérkwjóma |
| Locative | ˈcérkwjy | ˈcérkwjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | |
|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkrë, ˈkrew∅ |
| Genitive | krëˈwjê |
| Dative | krëˈwjy |
| Accusative | ˈkrë, ˈkrew∅ |
| Instrumental | krëˈwjõ |
| Locative | krëˈwjy |
| Vocative | = |
Neuter nouns can end in a ⟨-ô⟩, a non-alternating consonant with ⟨-é⟩ ending, a consonant with ⟨-ã⟩ ending, and non-alternating consonants with ⟨-ê⟩ ending, the last two groups being sub-classes of the first.
| Stressed | Non-stressed | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
| Nominative | -ˈô | -ˈa | -ˈê | -ô, -ê | -a | -ê | |
| Genitive | -ˈa | -∅, -ˈó | = | -a | -∅, -ó | = | |
| Dative | -ˈú | -ˈóm | -ˈôma | -ú | -óm | -ôma | |
| Accusative | -ˈô | -ˈa | -ˈê | -ô, -ê | -a | -ê | |
| Instrumental | -ˈã | -amˈy (-ˈmy, -ˈy) | -ˈôma | -ã | -amy (-my, -y) | -ôma | |
| Locative | -ˈú, -ˈê | -ˈach (-ˈéch) | = | -ê | -ach (-éch, -ich) | = | |
| Vocative | = | = | -ˈê | = | = | -ê | |
Examples:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈlatô | ˈlata | ˈlêcê |
| Genitive | ˈlata | ˈlat∅ | = |
| Dative | ˈlatú | ˈlatóm | ˈlatóma |
| Accusative | ˈlatô | ˈlata | ˈlêcê |
| Instrumental | ˈlatã | ˈlaty/ˈlatamy | ˈlatóma |
| Locative | ˈlêcê | ˈlatach/ˈlêcéch | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkôlô | ˈkôla | ˈkôlê |
| Genitive | ˈkôla | ˈkól∅ | = |
| Dative | ˈkôlú | kôˈlóm | ˈkôlóma |
| Accusative | ˈkôlô | ˈkôla | ˈkôlê |
| Instrumental | ˈkôlã | kôlaˈmy | ˈkôlóma |
| Locative | kôˈlú | kôˈlach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkôlanô | kôˈlana | = |
| Genitive | ˈkôlana | kôˈlón∅/kôˈlanó | = |
| Dative | ˈkôlanú | kôˈlanóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈkôlanô | kôˈlana | = |
| Instrumental | ˈkôlanã | kôˈlanmy/kôˈlanamy | = |
| Locative | ˈkôlanjê | kôˈlanjéch/kôˈlanach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈkrô | ˈkrë | ˈkrzê |
| Genitive | ˈkrë | ˈkjêr∅/ˈkró | = |
| Dative | ˈkrú | ˈkróm | ˈkrôma |
| Accusative | ˈkrô | ˈkrë | ˈkrzê |
| Instrumental | ˈkrã | ˈkramy | ˈkrôma |
| Locative | ˈkrzê | ˈkrzéch/ˈkrach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈpôlô/ˈpôlê | ˈpôla | = |
| Genitive | ˈpôla | ˈpól∅ | = |
| Dative | ˈpôlú | pôˈlóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈpôlô/ˈpôlê | ˈpôla | = |
| Instrumental | ˈpôlã | pôlˈmy/pôˈlamy | = |
| Locative | ˈpôlê/pôˈlú | pôˈlach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈmôrzê | ˈmôrza | = |
| Genitive | ˈmôrza | môˈrzy/môˈrzó | = |
| Dative | ˈmôrzú | môˈrzóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈmôrzê | ˈmôrza | = |
| Instrumental | ˈmôrzã | môrzˈmy/môrzaˈmy | = |
| Locative | ˈmôrzê/môˈrzú | môˈrzach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈjajê/ˈjajô | ˈjaja | ˈjajê |
| Genitive | ˈjaja | ˈjôj | = |
| Dative | ˈjajú | jaˈjóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈjajê/ˈjajô | ˈjaja | ˈjajê |
| Instrumental | ˈjajã | jajˈmy | = |
| Locative | jaˈjú | jaˈjach/jaˈjéch | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈremjã | reˈmjônjê | = |
| Genitive | ˈremjênja | reˈmjón∅/reˈmjônjó | = |
| Dative | ˈremjênjú | reˈmjônjóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈremjã | reˈmjônjê | = |
| Instrumental | ˈremjênjã | reˈmjônjamy/reˈmjônjmy | = |
| Locative | ˈremjênjê/reˈmjênjú | reˈmjônjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈcêlã | cêˈląta | = |
| Genitive | ˈcêlëca | ˈcêląt∅/cêˈlątó | = |
| Dative | ˈcêlëcú | cêˈlątóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈcêlã | cêˈląta | = |
| Instrumental | ˈcêlëcã | cêˈlątamy/cêˈlątmy/cêˈląty | = |
| Locative | ˈcêlëcú | cêˈlątach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | ˈjagnjã | jagˈnjąta | = |
| Genitive | ˈjagnjica | ˈjagnjąt∅/jagˈnjątó | = |
| Dative | ˈjagnjicú | jagˈnjątóm | = |
| Accusative | ˈjagnjã | jagˈnjąta | = |
| Instrumental | ˈjagnjicã | jagˈnjątamy/jagˈnjątmy/jagˈnjąty | = |
| Locative | ˈjagnjicú | jagˈnjątach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Stressed | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Dual | ||
| Nominative | -é | -o, -é, -a | = | |
| Genitive | -o | -∅, -ó | = | |
| Dative | -ú | -óm (-im) | = | |
| Accusative | -é | -o, -é | = | |
| Instrumental | -ym | -amy (-my, -y) | = | |
| Locative | -ú, -im | = | ||
| Vocative | = | = | = | |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | koˈzanjé | koˈzanjo/koˈzanjé | = |
| Genitive | koˈzanjo | koˈzónj∅/koˈzanjó | = |
| Dative | koˈzanjú | koˈzanjóm | = |
| Accusative | koˈzanjé | koˈzanjé/koˈzanjo | = |
| Instrumental | koˈzanjim | koˈzanjmy/koˈzanjamy | = |
| Locative | koˈzanjú/koˈzanjim | koˈzanjach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | wjeˈsêlé | wjeˈsôla | = |
| Genitive | wjeˈsêlo | wjeˈsól∅ | = |
| Dative | wjeˈsêlú | wjeˈsôlóm | = |
| Accusative | wjeˈsêlé | wjeˈsôla | = |
| Instrumental | wjeˈsêlim | wjeˈsôlamy | = |
| Locative | wjeˈsêlú/wjeˈsêlim | wjeˈsôlach | = |
| Vocative | = | = | = |
With one exception, soft stem-final consonants remain unchanged; hard stem-final consonants, however, have a number of alternations:
The alternations ⟨k⟩||⟨kj⟩, ⟨g⟩||⟨gj⟩, ⟨zg⟩||⟨zgj⟩, ⟨ch⟩||⟨chj⟩, ⟨gh⟩||⟨j⟩ occur:
ˈmjêch ("sack") > ˈmjêchji (nominative-accusative plural);
ˈftoch ("bird") > ˈftochjy (instrumental plural).
ˈslëga ("servant") > ˈslëgji (geneitive singular).
ˈmùcha ("fly (insect)") > ˈmùchji (genitive singular/nominative-accusative plural).
Szwétsko ("Sweden") > Szvétskjé (genitive singular) > Szwétskjy (locative singular).
The alternations ⟨k⟩||⟨c⟩, ⟨g⟩||⟨z⟩, ⟨zg⟩||⟨zdz⟩, ⟨ch⟩||⟨sz⟩, ⟨gh⟩||⟨z⟩/⟨ż⟩, ⟨t⟩||⟨c⟩, ⟨d⟩||⟨dz⟩, ⟨n⟩||⟨nj⟩, ⟨m⟩||⟨mj⟩, p⟩||⟨pj⟩, ⟨b⟩||⟨bj⟩, ⟨f⟩||⟨fj⟩, ⟨w⟩||⟨wj⟩, ⟨r⟩||⟨rz⟩, ⟨c⟩||⟨cz⟩, ⟨z⟩||⟨ż⟩ occur:
ˈchlôp ("man") ˈchlôpji (nominative-accusative plural);
ˈkop ("knave") ˈknopji (nominative-accusative plural);
ˈmaszchôp ("comrade; partner") > ˈmaszchôpji (nominative-accusative plural);
ˈsnjég ("snow") > ˈsnjêzê (locative singular);
ˈsnjég ("snow") > ˈsnjêzê (nominative plural);
ˈkwjat ("flower") > kwjeˈcéch (locative plural).
ˈopa ("monkey; ape") > ˈopjê (dative-locative singular).
ˈrãka ("hand; arm") > ˈrãcê (dative-locative singular/nominative-accusative dual);
ˈmogha ("stomach, maw") > ˈmozê or ˈmożê (dative-locative singular);
ˈrejgha ("row") > ˈrejzê or ˈrejżê (dative-locative singular);
ˈrózga ("branch, twig") > ˈrózdzê (dative-locative singular);
ˈborzda ("furrow") > ˈbarzdzéch (locative plural).
ˈlatô ("summer") > ˈlêcê (locative singular/nominative-accusative dual);
ˈgnjozdô ("nest") > ˈgnjozdzéch (locative plural).
The alternations ⟨k⟩||⟨cz⟩, ⟨g⟩||⟨ż⟩, ⟨ch⟩||⟨sz⟩, ⟨t⟩||⟨c⟩, ⟨d⟩||⟨dz⟩, ⟨n⟩||⟨nj⟩, ⟨m⟩||⟨mj⟩, ⟨p⟩||⟨pj⟩, ⟨b⟩||⟨bj⟩, ⟨f⟩||⟨fj⟩, ⟨w⟩||⟨wj⟩, ⟨r⟩||⟨rz⟩, ⟨c⟩||⟨cz⟩, ⟨z⟩||⟨ż⟩ occur:
ˈczlôwjek ("person") > ˈczlôwjecê (vocative singular);
kaˈmrot ("comrade") > kaˈmrocê (vocative singular).
ˈopa ("monkey; ape") > ˈopjê (vocative singular).
The alternations ⟨c⟩||cz and ⟨z⟩||⟨ż⟩ occurs:
ˈchlôpc ("serf; male servant") > ˈchlôpczê (vocative singular).
There also exists a number of isolated, irregular alternations, usually in common words.
There are three types of vowel alternations.
The first alternation affects the last syllable of the stem.
This alternation can put vowels into three groups:
The vowels ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the nominative singular of an alternating stem always alternate with the vowels ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩. The vowels ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the nominative singular of an alternating stem always alternate with ⟨o, ó, é y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩, but ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ are not attested in the nominative singular of an alternating stem. The vowels ⟨ôˈi, au, ùej, ă, ŏ, ĕ, ù̆⟩ never alternate.
Group 1~2
ˈczod ("smoke, fume") > ˈczadú (genitive singular)
ˈwˈãgorz ("eel") > ˈwãgôrza (genitive singular) but wãˈgórz (genitive plural)
ˈgwjozda ("star") > ˈgwjazdõ (instrumental singular)
ˈpôkoj ("calm") > ˈpôkôjú (genitive singular) > pôˈkôjú (locative singular)
ˈbóg ("god") > ˈbôga (genitive singular)
ˈmjêszczón ("urbanite") > ˈmjêszczana (genitive singular)
ˈjablónka ("apple tree") > jaˈblônkã (instrumental singular)
drëˈżéjn ("pith in the wood") > drëˈżênja (genitive singular)
ˈbjég ("run") > ˈbjêgú (genitive singular) > ˈbjegú (locative singular)
(loanword with fixed stress before ⟨j⟩ in stem-final position) aˈléj ("alley") > aˈlejjú (genitive singular)
ˈżmjija ("snake") > żmjyˈjõ (instrumental singular)
ˈczin ("deed") > ˈczynú (genitive singular)
ˈżid ("Jew") > ˈżëda (genitive singular)
ˈdlúg ("debt") > ˈdlëga (genitive singular)
ˈjúcha ("soup") > jùˈchõ (instrumental singular)
ˈdõb ("oak tree") > ˈdãba (genitive singular)
ˈreknŭnga ("reckoning") > rekˈnĭngõ (instrumental singular)
ˈstôùw or ˈstôù ("pond") > staˈwú (genitive singular) > staˈwó (genitive plural)
ˈczôùn > ("small inland boat") > ˈczôùn (genitive singular)
Group 2~1:
ˈscana ("wall") > ˈscón (genitive plural)
ˈstrawa ("meal") > ˈstrôù(v) (genitive plural)
ˈskala ("rock") > ˈskôùl (genitive plural)
ˈbaba ("old woman") > ˈbob (genitive plural)
ˈgrônô ("squat, crouch") > ˈgrón (genitive plural)
ˈkrôwa ("cow") > ˈkró(w) (genitive plural)
ˈszczêżëla ("scale (of an animal)") szczeˈzúl (genitive plural)
ˈsztënja ("hour") > ˈsztún (genitive plural)
ˈsztrëga ("brook, stream") > ˈsztrúg (genitive plural)
ˈlëba ("type of weaving rush") > ˈlúb (genitive plural)
szëja ("neck") > szyj (genitive plural)
ˈstrzëna ("duct, pipe, tube") > ˈstrzyn (genitive plural)
ˈstrzëżënë ("cord, string") (plurale tantum) > ˈstrzëżyn (genitive plural)
ˈghrëla (fire poker) > ˈghrol (genitive plural)
ˈszczinë ("urine") (plurale tantum) > ˈszczyn (genitive plural)
ˈbùda ("booth, stall") > ˈbúd (genitive plural)
ˈlãba ("sheaf") > ˈlõb (genitive plural)
ˈjajô ("egg") > ˈjôj (genitive plural) > jajˈmy (instrumental plural)
Nouns with fleeting vowels do not count the fleeting vowel for the syllable count of the stem.
One can generally predict when alternations take place for each inflection type knowing the gender, number of syllables of the stem, last stem vowel, the voicedness of the final consonant (⟨-ôù⟩ is considered voiced), and whether stress is mobile or stressed.
⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations occurs for masculine mono-syllabic and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant or in a consonant ending with ⟨-a⟩ and feminine mono-syllabic and polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant in the genitive, dative, accusative animate, instrumental, and vocative singular and in all the plural (except accusative animate) and dual forms. If the genitive plural is -∅, then ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ are present. Nouns ending in a consonant alternate only if the vowel in the final stem syllable is ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩.
(fixed) ˈgrod ("hail") > ˈgradú (genitive singular)
(mobile) ˈbóg ("god") > ˈbôga (genitive singular)
ˈtónc ("dance") has both this alternation and no alternation: ˈtanca or ˈtónc (genitive singular)
ˈslúp ("post, pillar") can have either fixed or mobile stress, and as a result, either this alternation or no alternation: ˈslúpjéch or slëˈpjéch (locative plural).
(fixed native word) ˈvëchód ("exit") > ˈvëchôda (genitive singular)
(fixed loanword) ˈknŭrhon ("gurnard") > ˈknŭrhona (genitive singular)
(mobile) ˈkõkól ("corncockle") > ˈkõkôlú (genitive singular)
(mobile ⟨-orz⟩) ˈpjêkorz ("baker") > ˈpjêkarza (genitive singular), ˈpjêkorza (genitive singular) and ˈpjêkarzú (locative singular)
(fixed or mobile) ˈdrob ("ladder") > ˈdrobjõ or draˈbjõ (instrumental singular)
(mobile) ˈscyrz ("beast of burden") > ˈscërza (genitive singular)
ˈgalõz ("gallows") > ˈgalãzë or gaˈlãzy (genitive singular) > gaˈlõz (genitive plural)
⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternate for neuter polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant ending with ⟨-ô⟩ in no singular forms and in all plural and dual forms.
ˈcalô ("body") > ˈcôùl (genitive plural)
ˈcêlõtkô ("calf") > cêˈlãtka (nominative plural)
ˈdôbitczõtkô ("small animal") > dôbitˈczãtka (nominative plural) but > ˈdôbitczõtkú (locative singular)
ˈslónyszkô ("sun") > slóˈnyszka (nominative plural)
⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations occurs for feminine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant anding with ⟨-a⟩ in the instrumental singular, genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative plurals, and not in the plural. If the genitive plural is -∅, then ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ are present.
(mobile ⟨-orz⟩) ˈpjêkorz ("baker") > ˈpjêkarza (genitive singular), ˈpjêkorza (genitive singular) and pjêˈkarzú (locative singular)
ˈkoczork ("drake (male duck)") > koˈczôrkú (locative singular)
(voiced) ˈgwjozda ("star") > gwjazˈdõ (instrumental singular)
(voiceless) ˈmõka ("flour") > mãˈkõ (instrumental singular)
⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ ~ ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ alternations occur for feminine monosyllabic stems ending in a consonant plus ending ⟨-a⟩ and in a consonant with ending ⟨-o⟩, polysyllabic stems ending in a consonant with ending ⟨-a⟩, and neuter stems ending in a consonant with ending ⟨-ô⟩ monosyllabic and polysyllabic stems only in the genitive plural unless the genitive plural is -∅.
(fixed native) ˈbaba ("old woman") > ˈbob (genitive plural)
(fixed loanword) ˈflagha ("flag") > ˈflagh (genitive plural)
(mobile loanword with alternation) ˈkara ("cart") > ˈkor (genitive plural)
(mobile loanword without alternation) ˈszëfla ("shovel") > szëˈfel (genitive plural)
(mobile native) ˈglôwa ("head") > ˈglów (genitive plural)
ˈwarna ("crow") > ˈworn but also ˈwarën (genitive plural)
ˈgównô ("shit") > ˈgôwna (nominative plural) > gôˈwjên (genitive plural)
slˈónyszkô ("sun") > slónˈyszka (nominative plural)
ˈwrzêcônô ("spindle") > wrzêˈcôna (nominative plural)
ˈdôbrô ("good") > dôˈber (genitive plural)
ˈkarnô ("(Shaar)") > ˈkarën (genitive plural)
The second type of alternations is not automatic and is rare, applying to a few dozen nouns. ⟨ˈa, a; ˈô, ô; ó, o⟩ may change into ⟨ˈê⟩ when stressed and ⟨ê⟩ when unstressed in native monosyllabic or polysyllabic stems.
This alternation may occur:
ˈjanjól ("angel") > ˈjanjelê (locative singular-nominative plural)
ˈjasón ("ash tree") > ˈjasênje (locative singular) > jaˈsênjéch (nominative plural)
ˈkôbjôra ("coltsfoot") > ˈkôbjerzê (dative-locative singular)
ˈmjara ("measure") > ˈmjêrzê (dative-locative singular/nominative-accusative dual)
ˈcalô ("body") > ˈcêlê (locative singular/nominative-accusative dual) > cêˈléch (locative plural)
This alternation does not even occur regularly in all the cases mentioned and may occur in nouns with mono- or polysyllabic stems of both mobile and fixed stress patterns and also depends on whether other alternations occur in these nouns.
The last alternation involves inserting ⟨ˈe, e, ë, ˈê, ˈej⟩ between the last consonants of a stem before -∅. The alternation itself it not predictable, but the inserted vowel is.
(with inserted -j) ˈdzeń ("day") > ˈdnja (genitive singular)
ˈlên ("flax") > ˈlnú (genitive singular)
ˈreż ("rye") > ˈrżë (genitive singular)
ˈwjês ("village") > ˈwsë (genitive singular)
ˈskra ("spark") > ˈskjêr or ˈskró (genitive plural)
ˈkrô ("calf of one's leg") > ˈkjêr or ˈkró (genitive plural)
ˈbãbël ("drum") > ˈbãbla (gen. sing.) > ˈbãbel (genitive plural)
but:
ˈserszël ("hornet") > ˈserszela (genitive singular)
ˈjêgla ("needle") > jêˈgjêl (genitive plural)
but:
ˈpalma ("palm") > ˈpalm (genitive plural)
but:
ˈwarna ("crow") > ˈwarên but also ˈworn (genitive plural)
ˈborna ("harrow") > baˈren but also ˈborn (genitive plural)
ˈcérkjëw ("church") > ˈcérkjwë (genitive singular) > ˈcérkjëw (genitive plural)
ˈkrôsna ("loom") (plurale tantum) > ˈkrôsên (genitive plural)
ˈżêbrô ("rib") > żeˈber (genitive plural)
A few nouns show isolated cases of other alternations.
Slovincian nouns can have either fixed or mobile stress. Nouns with fixed stress keep the stress on the stem, unless the stress is on the end, in which case the stress will always be on the last syllable. If an vowel is inserted in the genitive plural formed with -∅, then that vowel will automatically get the stress. All non-syllabic stems with fixed stress have in the dative and instrumental dual a stress shift to the first syllable of the inflectional suffix.
Nouns with mobile stress can shift it in three ways.
Some shift it right in the plural and the dual.
Nouns with this type of shift include:
Some shift it right in the genitive, dative, instrumental, and locative plural.
Nouns with this type of shift include:
Some shift it left in non-animate accusative singular and the nominative and accusative plural and dual.
Nouns with this type of shift include:
All other nouns have fixed stress.
General rules:
It is possible to predict the stress pattern of a noun if one knows:
In Slovincian, prepositions can act as proclitics and take stress completely away from masculine and feminine nouns ending in a consonant or a consonant+⟨-a⟩ and from neuter nouns ending in a consonant+⟨-ô⟩ or in a consonant+⟨-ã⟩.
This happens to:
No retraction occurs in:
There is a strong tendency for words with stress on final or only syllable of the inflectional suffix when there is a preposition to retract to the initial syllable of the word.
Sometimes both the noun and the preposition are stressed.
There are long, short, and possessive adjectives. Short adjectives are uncommon. Short adjectives are used predicatively. In addition to hard and soft declension, like Kashubian, Slovincian velar stems soften in the nominative but are hard in other cases.
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | nôˈwy | nôˈwo | nôˈwé | nôˈwy (virile), nôˈwé (non-virile) | nôˈwé | nôˈwé | nôˈwo | nôˈwé | nôˈwé |
| Genitive | nôˈwéwo, nôˈwo | nôˈwé | nôˈwéwo, nôˈwo | nôˈwëch | nôˈwëch | nôˈwëch | = | = | = |
| Dative | nôˈwémú | nôˈwy | nôˈwémú | nôˈwym | nôˈwym | nôˈwym | nôˈwëma | nôˈwëma | nôˈwëma |
| Accusative | Inanimate: nôˈwy Animate: nôˈwéwo, nôˈwo | nôˈwõ | nôˈwé | Inanimate: nôˈwy (virile), nôwė (non-virile) Animate: nôˈwëch | nôˈwé | nôˈwé | nôˈwo | nôˈwé | nôˈwé |
| Instrumental | nôˈwym | nôˈwõ | nôˈwym | nôˈwëmy | nôˈwëmy | nôˈwëmy | nôˈwëma | nôˈwëma | nôˈwëma |
| Locative | nôˈwym | nôˈwy | nôˈwym | nôˈwëch | nôˈwëch | nôˈwëch | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈstory | ˈstoro | ˈstoré | ˈstorzy (virile), ˈstoré (non-virile) | ˈstoré | ˈstoré | ˈstoro | ˈstoré | ˈstoré |
| Genitive | ˈstoréwo, ˈstoro | ˈstoré | ˈstoréwo, ˈstoro | ˈstorëch | ˈstorëch | ˈstorëch | = | = | = |
| Dative | ˈstorémú | ˈstory | ˈstorémú | ˈstorym | ˈstorym | ˈstorym | ˈstorëma | ˈstorëma | ˈstorëma |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈstory Animate: ˈstoréwo, ˈstoro | ˈstorõ | ˈstoré | Inanimate: ˈstory (virile), ˈstoré (non-virile) Animate: ˈstorëch | ˈstoré | ˈstoré | ˈstoré | ˈstoré | ˈstoré |
| Instrumental | ˈstorym | ˈstorõ | ˈstorim | ˈstorëmy | ˈstorëmy | ˈstorëmy | ˈstorëma | ˈstorëma | ˈstorëma |
| Locative | ˈstorym | ˈstory | ˈstorym | ˈstorëch | ˈstorëch | ˈstorëch | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | wôwˈczy | wôwˈczo | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczy (virile), wôwˈczé (non-virile) | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczo | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczé |
| Genitive | wôwˈczéwo, wôwˈczo | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczéwo, wôwˈczo | wôwˈczich | wôwˈczich | wôwˈczich | = | = | = |
| Dative | wôwˈczémú | wôwˈczy | wôwˈczémú | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczima | wôwˈczima | wôwˈczima |
| Accusative | Inanimate: wôwˈczy Animate: wôwˈczéwo, wôwˈczo | wôwˈczõ | wôwˈczé | Inanimate: wôwˈczy (virile), wôwˈczé (non-virile) Animate: wôwˈczych | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczé | wôwˈczé |
| Instrumental | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczõ | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczimy | wôwˈczimy | wôwˈczimy | wôwˈczima | wôwˈczima | wôwˈczima |
| Locative | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczy | wôwˈczym | wôwˈczich | wôwˈczich | wôwˈczich | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈtónjy | ˈtónjo | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjy (virile), ˈtónjé (non-virile) | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjo | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjé |
| Genitive | ˈtónjéwo, ˈtónjo | ˈtónjo | ˈtónjéwo, ˈtónjo | ˈtónjich | ˈtónjich | ˈtónjich | = | = | = |
| Dative | ˈtónjémú | ˈtónjy | ˈtónjémú | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjima | ˈtónjima | ˈtónjima |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈtónjy Animate: ˈtónjéwo, ˈtónjo | ˈtónjõ | ˈtónjé | Inanimate: ˈtónjy (virile), ˈtónjé (non-virile) Animate: ˈtónjich | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjé | ˈtónjé |
| Instrumental | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjõ | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjimy | ˈtónjimy | ˈtónjimy | ˈtónjima | ˈtónjima | ˈtónjima |
| Locative | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjy | ˈtónjim | ˈtónjich | ˈtónjich | ˈtónjich | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | cëchjˈy | cëchˈo | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈy (virile), cëchjˈé (non-virile) | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈé | cëchˈo | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈé |
| Genitive | cëchjˈéwo, cëcho | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈéwo, cëchˈo | cëˈchjich | cëˈchjich | cëˈchjich | = | = | = |
| Dative | cëchjˈémú | cëchjˈy | cëchjˈémú | cëchjˈym | cëchjˈym | cëchjˈym | cëˈchjima | cëˈchjima | cëˈchjima |
| Accusative | Inanimate: cëchjˈy Animate: cëchjˈéwo, cëchˈo | cëchˈõ | cëchjˈé | Inanimate: cëchjˈy (virile), cëchjˈé (non-virile) Animate: cëchjˈych | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈé | cëchjˈé |
| Instrumental | cëchjˈym | cëchˈõ | cëchjˈym | cëˈchjimy | cëˈchjimy | cëˈchjimy | cëˈchjimy | cëˈchjimy | cëˈchjimy |
| Locative | cëchjˈym | cëchjˈy | cëchjˈym | cëˈchjich | cëˈchjich | cëˈchjich | = | = | = |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈwjelgjy | ˈwjelgo | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelzy (virile), ˈwjelgjé (non-virile) | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgo | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjé |
| Genitive | ˈwjelgjéwo, ˈwjelgo | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjéwo, ˈwjelgo | ˈwjelgjich | ˈwjelgjich | ˈwjelgjich | = | = | = |
| Dative | ˈwjelgjémú | ˈwjelgjy | ˈwjelgjémú | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgjima | ˈwjelgjima | ˈwjelgjima |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈwjelgjy Animate: ˈwjelgjéwo, ˈwjelgo | ˈwjelgõ | ˈwjelgjé | Inanimate: wjelzy (virile), ˈwjelgjé (non-virile) Animate: ˈwjelgjych | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjé | ˈwjelgjé |
| Instrumental | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgõ | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgjimy | ˈwjelgjimy | ˈwjelgjimy | ˈwjelgjima | ˈwjelgjima | ˈwjelgjima |
| Locative | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgjy | ˈwjelgjim | ˈwjelgjich | ˈwjelgjich | ˈwjelgjich | = | = | = |
The short masculine/neuter genitive form and ⟨-o⟩ is most often found with adjectives that do not have a stress on the final syllable, especially when they are used as nouns. It is rare in adjectives with word-final stress, and the most rare in velar stems, which, even when not stressed word-finally, prefer ⟨-éwo⟩. For ˈzly ("bad"), the genitive is always ˈzlévo.
⟨-ë⟩ is sometimes used instead of the phonetic ⟨-i⟩ in soft stems in the genitive-instrumental-locative plural and dative-instrumental dual, this almost never happens with velar stems.
Slovincian has ⟨-szy⟩ and ⟨-êszy⟩ as comparative suffixes. ⟨-szy⟩ is used in stems that end with a single consonant. Some stems ending in ⟨-k⟩ typically lose it, but the ⟨k⟩ is often restored analogously. If a stem ends in multiple consonants, ⟨-êszy⟩, which can can stress and stem alternations such as ⟨t, n, r⟩ ~ ⟨c, nj, rz⟩.
Slovincian, like other Slavic languages also has suppletive comparatives.
The superlative is formed from the comparative with the prefix ⟨no-⟩.
The accent of the long adjectives is fixed.
Possessive adjectives ending in ⟨-ó⟩ and ⟨-yn⟩ have a definite and indefinite form in the lemma form, and a definite form everywhere else. Possessive adjectives derived from monosyllabic stems emphasize the stem syllable. Polysyllabic stems emphasize the last stem syllable if the base word has a movable accent; however, if the base word has a fixed accent, the possessive adjective emphasizes the same syllable as the base word. Other possessive adjectives have a fixed accent.
Place names ending in ⟨-ôwô, -ënô⟩ are neuter possessive adjectives; those ending in ⟨-ôwô⟩ withdraw the accent as much as possible.
Ordinal numerals are long adjectives and as such emphasize the penultimate syllable.
Adverbs can be formed from adjectives as well as prepositional phrases.
The comparative adverb is formed by adding the suffix ⟨-é⟩. Adverbs also have suppletive comparatives. The superlative is formed by putting the prefix ⟨no-⟩ in front of the comparative. ⟨-é⟩ causes consonant softening: ⟨p, b, w, m, t, d, st, zd, n, k, g, ch, r⟩ alternate with ⟨pj, bj, wj, mj, c, dz, szcz, żdż, nj, cz, ż, sz, rz⟩.
Pronouns share the same cases, numbers, and genders with nouns, but the vocative is the same as the nominative, and is only used with second person pronouns, and only personal pronouns have the dual. The three genders are only distinct for the non-personal or third-person pronouns. Pronouns may be used as clitics, and may occur generally in stressed or unstressed positions. Some have short forms, used in unstressed positions.
| Singular | Plural | Dual | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | 2nd | 1st | 2nd | 1st | 2nd | |||||||
| stressed | unstressed | stressed | unstressed | stressed | unstressed | stressed | unstressed | stressed | unstressed | stressed | unstressed | |
| Nominative | ˈjo | jo | ˈtë | të | ˈmë | më | ˈwë | wë | ˈma, ˈmjê | ma, mjê | ˈwa, ˈwjê | wa, wjê |
| Genitive | ˈmjê | mjê | ˈcêbjê | cê | ˈnas | — | ˈwas | — | ˈnajú | — | ˈwajú | — |
| Dative | ˈmjê | mjê | ˈtôbjê | cê, tê | ˈnóm | nóm | ˈwóm | wóm | ˈnama | — | ˈwama | — |
| Accusative | ˈmjê | mjê | ˈcêbjê | cê | ˈnas | nas | ˈwas | was | ˈnajú | — | ˈwajú | — |
| Instrumental | ˈmnõ | — | tôˈbõ | — | ˈnamy | — | ˈwamy | — | ˈnama | — | ˈwama | — |
| Locative | ˈmjˈê | mjê | ˈcêbjê | cê | ˈnas | — | ˈwas | — | ˈnajú | — | ˈwajú | — |
| stressed | unstressed | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | — | |
| Genitive | ˈsêbjê | sê |
| Dative | ˈsôbjê | sê |
| Accusative | — | sã, sê |
| Instrumental | sôˈbõ | — |
| Locative | ˈsêbjê | sê |
In addition to personal pronouns, Slovincian also has:
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈtên | ˈta | ˈtô | ˈty (virile) tˈë (non-virile) | ˈty, tˈë | ˈtë | ˈta | ˈtë | ˈtë |
| Genitive | ˈtêwo, to (unstressed) | ˈté | ˈtêwo, to (unstressed) | ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) | ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) | ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) | = | = | = |
| Dative | ˈtêmú | ˈty | ˈtêmú | ˈtym | ˈtym | ˈtym | ˈtëma | ˈtëma | ˈtëma |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈtên Animate: ˈtêwo, ˈto (unstressed) | ˈtã | ˈtô | ˈty, ˈtë (inanimate) ˈtëch (inanimate; pronounced tech when unstressed) | ˈtë | ˈtë | ˈta | ˈtë | ˈtë |
| Instrumental | ˈtym | ˈtõ | ˈtym | ˈtëmy | ˈtëmy | ˈtëmy | ˈtëma | ˈtëma | ˈtëma |
| Locative | ˈtym | ˈty | ˈtym | ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) | ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) | ˈtëch (pronounced tech when unstressed) | = | = | = |
| Nominative | ˈchtô, ˈchteż |
|---|---|
| Genitive | ˈkôwo, ˈko, ˈkjêwo |
| Dative | ˈkômú, ˈkjêmú |
| Accusative | ˈkôwo, ˈko, ˈkjêwo |
| Instrumental | ˈczym |
| Locative | ˈczym |
| Nominative | ˈcô, ˈceż |
|---|---|
| Genitive | ˈczêwo, ˈczo |
| Dative | ˈczêmú |
| Accusative | ˈcô, ˈcesz |
| Instrumental | ˈczym |
| Locative | ˈczym |
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈjên | — | — | — | — | — | — | ||
| Genitive | ˈjêwo (stressed) jêwo, jo, njewo, njo (unstressed) | ˈjé | ˈjêwo (stressed) jêwo, jo, njewo, njo (unstressed) | ˈjich, ˈnjich | ˈjich, ˈnjich | ˈjich, ˈnjich | ˈjú, ˈnjú | ˈjú, ˈnjú | ˈjú, ˈnjú |
| Dative | ˈjêmú (stressed) jêmú, mú (unstressed) | ˈjy | ˈjêmú (stressed) jêmú, mú (unstressed) | ˈjym | ˈjym | ˈjym | ˈjima, njima (stressed) | ˈnjima (stressed) | ˈnjima (stressed) |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈjên (stressed); jên, njên (unstressed) Animate: ˈjêwo, jo (stressed) jêwo, jo, njêwo, njo (unstressed) | ˈjã, njã | jë (unstressed) | ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) jich, jë, një (unstressed) | jë, një (unstressed) | jë, një (unstressed) | ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) | jë, një (unstressed) | jë, një (unstressed) |
| Instrumental | ˈnjym | ˈjõ | ˈnjym | ˈnjimy (stressed) | ˈnjimy (stressed) | ˈnjimy (stressed) | ˈjima, njima | ˈnjima (stressed) | ˈnjima (stressed) |
| Locative | ˈnjym | ˈnjy | ˈnjym | ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) | ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) | ˈjich, ˈnjich (stressed) | = | = | = |
Alternative forms starting with ⟨nj-⟩ are used after prepositions.
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈmój | ˈmo | ˈmé | ˈmy, ˈmé | ˈmé | ˈmé | ˈmo | ˈmé | ˈmé |
| Genitive | ˈméwo, ˈmo | ˈmé | ˈméwo, ˈmo | ˈmëch | ˈmëch | ˈmëch | = | = | = |
| Dative | ˈmémú | ˈmy | ˈmémú | ˈmym | ˈmym | ˈmym | ˈmëma | ˈmëma | ˈmëma |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈmój Animate: ˈméwo, ˈmo | ˈmõ | ˈmé | Inanimate: ˈmy, ˈmé Animate: ˈmëch | ˈmé | ˈmé | ˈmé | ˈmé | ˈmé |
| Instrumental | ˈmym | ˈmõ | ˈmym | ˈmëmy | ˈmëmy | ˈmëmy | ˈmëma | ˈmëma | ˈmëma |
| Locative | ˈmym | ˈmy | ˈmym | ˈmëch | ˈmëch | ˈmëch | = | = | = |
ˈtwój and ˈswój decline similarly, as well as ˈnasz and ˈwasz, but the latter only differ in the nominative and accusative. Many of these forms are the result of vowel contractions; uncontracted forms died out; but the nominative ˈmôja, ˈtwôja, ˈtwôje still occurred in folk songs and in the Lord's Prayer. ˈczy inflects like ˈmój, only in the plural and dual, it has ⟨i⟩ instead of ⟨ë⟩: ˈczimy, ˈczima.
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |
| Nominative | ˈwszëden | ˈwszëtka | ˈwszëtkô | ˈwszëtcë (virile), ˈwszëtkji (non-virile) | ˈwszëtkji | ˈwszëtkji | = | = | = |
| Genitive | ˈwszêwo | ˈwszé | ˈwszêwo | ˈwszêch | ˈwszêch | ˈwszêch | = | = | = |
| Dative | ˈwszêmú | ˈwszy | ˈwszêmú | ˈwszym | ˈwszym | ˈwszym | = | = | = |
| Accusative | Inanimate: ˈwszëden Animate: ˈwszêwo | ˈwszëtką | ˈwszëtkô | Inanimate: ˈwszëtkji Animate: ˈwszêch | ˈwszëtkã | ˈwszëtkô | = | = | = |
| Instrumental | ˈwszym | ˈwszõ | ˈwszym | ˈwszëmy | ˈwszëmy | ˈwszëmy | = | = | = |
| Locative | ˈwszym | ˈwszy | ˈwszym | ˈwszêch | ˈwszêch | ˈwszêch | = | = | = |
Slovincian has ordinal, cardinal, and collective numerals.
The cardinal numbers 1-20, words for tens (30, 40, etc.), hundreds, and thousands in Slovincian have a single word, all others are made through combining other cardinal numbers. There are no ordinals of numbers over 30 in Slovenian.
The numerals jˈëden, dwˈa, trzˈë, sztˈérzë ("one, two, three, four") and are declinable. Numbers from five (pjˈync) to twenty (dwadzˈêsca) except word for "teens" ending in ⟨-e⟩ are declinable. Teens are usually indeclinable, but sometimes decline like adjectives. They are sometimes reduced to ⟨-no⟩. tˈësinc ("thousand") behaves grammatically like a noun and declines as one.
Ordinal numerals are long adjectives and are inflected as such. There are no ordinal numerals above 30. Collective numerals are only used in the nominative and accusative.
Multiplicative numerals are long adjectives; numerals ending in ⟨-jak⟩ are adverbs.
The fractional number words formed with ⟨pôù-⟩ are usually declinable.
Di- and multi-syllable cardinal numerals are emphasized on the last syllable. In inflectable numerals the accent is fixed.
Numerals for tens from 30 to 90 and for thousands have the main stress on the stem (the root for hundred, thousand). Words for the thousands often have a primary stress on both elements. This is always the case for those exceeding 10,000. Conversely, the hundreds emphasize the number word; if this is polysyllabic, the following noun has a secondary accent.
Words for numerals between the tens (21, 34, etc.) are composed of the ones digit numeral, a connecting a ("and"), and the tens numeral. In the expressions for 21 to 29, the primary stress is on the connecting a and the number words themselves usually both have a secondary stress, or both number words are fully stressed and the a follows the decade number word proclitic. For non-tens numerals higher than 30, the latter is always the case.
Collective numerals are emphasized on the same syllable as the cardinal numeral counterparts.
The distributive numerals formed with ⟨po-, pô-⟩ place the accent on the prefix up to 40.
Fractional numerals formed with ⟨pôù-⟩ emphasize either the prefix or the penultimate syllable. ⟨pôù-⟩ has a secondary accent if the word contains more than three syllables. In the inflected forms there is only penultimate stress.
Like Polish and Kashubian, Slovincian has lost the Proto-Slavic imperfect and the aorist forms. The l-participle has taken its place as the past tense form. The other differences in tense are either expressed through paraphrases or remain formally unmarked. The supine has also disappeared. Most participles have been lost. The Slovincian future tense, perfect, pluperfect, conditional and passive form have periphrastic formations.
The lemma forms of verbs is the infinitive, ending in ⟨-c⟩. Verbs can be divided into five main classes, each with several subclasses.
Slovincian has perfective and imperfective aspects verbs much like Kashubian or Polish.
| infinitive (wiezc) | |||
| Singular | Plural | Dual | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | -ã, -m | -më | -ma, -më |
| 2nd | -sz | -ce | -ta, -te |
| 3rd | -∅ | -ó | -ta, -te |
Dual forms for neuter subjects are not used.
The imperative is formed in two ways, depending on whether the stem ends in a consonant or a vowel. Stems ending in a consonant form the imperative by adding ⟨-i⟩ (⟨-ë⟩ after hard consonants.) Stems ending in a vowel add the ending ⟨-j⟩, which can sometimes disappear. The third person singular imperative is the same as the second person imperative, and the third person plural and dual imperative is formed with ⟨nô⟩ and the third person plural/dual present form
The active present participle has the ending ⟨-õcy⟩ for all verbs and is inflected as a long adjective. The present adverbial participle is formed ⟨-õcë⟩, forms without ⟨-ë⟩ do not occur, and is indeclinable.
The past tense is formed using the old l-participle and declines for gender and number:
The masculine singular ending ⟨-l⟩ disappears if a verb has an consonantal stem (classes IA, IIA., IIB and sometimes III1A and V).
The feminine singular and masculine dual contract in classes IB, IC, III1B—E, III2, IVB, IVC. and some of classes III1A and V.
In classes IIG and with some classes of III1A, in the feminine singular and masculine dual, the ⟨-l-⟩ disappears and contraction occurs; in the masculine singular, to ⟨-ón-⟩ and in other forms the ⟨-l-⟩ combines with the nasal vowel;
The past participle is formed with ⟨-ly, -ty, -ny, -jôny⟩ and inflected as a long adjective. These participles have completely collapsed in stress. Regardless of the suffix with which it is formed, it has an active or passive meaning depending on the verbal term. ⟨-ly⟩ is common in classes IA, IIA, IIB, and often in classes III2A, III2B, IVB, as well as some verbs of class V. ⟨-ty⟩ is used in class III1A. ⟨-ny⟩ is with classes IB, IC, III1B, III1C, III1D, III2C, III2D, IVC, and subclasses of III1A. and III2A. and some classes III2A, III2B, IVB, as well as some classes of V and IIC. ⟨-jôny⟩ is only found in the verbs of class IVA.
A verbal noun, which is a declinable neuter noun, can be formed from every verb with the suffixes ⟨-cé, -njé, and -ênjé⟩. ⟨-cé⟩ is common wherever the past participle is formed by ⟨-ty⟩ (class III1A), except for some verbs ending with ⟨r⟩, which form the verbal noun from the present stem. ⟨-njé⟩ is used in classes IB, IC, III1B—E, III2, IVB, IVC, and some verbs of the classes III1A, V, IA, IIC, and III1A2a. ⟨-ênjé⟩ is used in class IVA.
The present tense of the perfective verb is usually used as the future tense, e.g. B. jo‿ˈpôjadã ("I will go (by vehicle)") next to jo‿ˈjadã "I am going (by vehicle)". An imperfective future is formed with the bõdã+ the l-participle, e.g. B. jo‿tô‿ˈbõdã ˈczynjél ("I will be doing that"), but this construction is rare. Sometimes the perfective future is the same as the imperfective present: jo‿ˈrzúcã ("I will throw/I am throwing) from the infinitives rzëcac (impferfective) and rzëcëc (pronounced rzëcec; perfective).
A perfect tense and the pluperfect tense can be formed through paraphrasis, bëc l-participle/mjêc + l-participle or a past passive participle. If bëc is used, the participle agrees in gender and number. If mjêc is used, the participle will either be in the neuter singular, or, much more regularly in gender and number.
The conditional is formed by combining an l-participle with the particle bä, which has a shortened form b.
The passive voice can be formed using bëc + a passive participle or by using sã, however the active is usually preferred.
⟨-t, -d, -s, -z, -k, -g, -r⟩ stems belong to class IA.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈplêsc "to plait" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈplôtã | ˈplêcemë | ˈplêcema, ˈplêcemë |
| 2nd | ˈplêcesz | ˈplêcece | ˈplêceta, ˈplêcete |
| 3rd | ˈplêce | ˈplôtõ | ˈplêcete, ˈplêcete |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | plêˈcëmë | plêˈcëma |
| 2nd | ˈplêcë | plêˈcëce | plêˈcëta, plêˈcëte |
| 3rd | ˈplêcë | ˈplôtõ | — |
| active present participle | plêˈcõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | plôˈtõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈplôtly | ||
| Verbal noun | plêˈcênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈplót, plôt Feminine: ˈplôtla Neuter: ˈplôtlô | Virile: ˈplêtly Non-virile: ˈplôtle | Virile: ˈplôtla Non-virile: ˈplôtle | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈrzêc "to speak" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈrzêkã | ˈrzêczemë | ˈrzêczema, ˈrzêczemë |
| 2nd | ˈrzêczesz | ˈrzêczece | ˈrzêczeta, ˈrzczete |
| 3rd | ˈrzêczë | ˈrzêkõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈrzêczimë | ˈrzêczima, ˈrzêczimë |
| 2nd | ˈrzêczi | ˈrzêczice | ˈrzêczita, ˈrzêczice |
| 3rd | ˈrzêczi | ˈrzêczita | — |
| active present participle | ˈrzêkõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈrzêkõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈrzêkly | ||
| Verbal noun | rzêčˈênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈrzêk Feminine: ˈrzêkla Neuter: ˈrzêklô | Virile: ˈrzêkly Non-virile: ˈrzêkle | Virile: ˈrzêkla Non-virile: ˈrzêkle | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈpjoc "to sing" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈpôjã | ˈpôjemë | ˈpôjema, ˈpôjemë |
| 2nd | ˈpôjesz | ˈpôjece | ˈpôjeta, ˈpôjete |
| 3rd | ˈpôje | ˈpôjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈpójmë, ˈpôjmë | ˈpójma, ˈpójmë, pôˈjima, pôˈjimë |
| 2nd | ˈpój, ˈpôji | ˈpójce, pôˈjice | ˈpójta, ˈpójte, pôˈjita, pôˈjite |
| 3rd | ˈpój, ˈpôjy | ˈpójce, pôˈjyce | — |
| active present participle | pôˈjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | pôˈjõce | ||
| past participle | ˈpjóny | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈpjênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈpjôùl Feminine: ˈpja Neuter: ˈpjalô | Virile: ˈpjêly Non-virile: ˈpjale | Virile: ˈpja Non-virile: ˈpjale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈlgac "to (tell a) lie" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈlgã | ˈlżêmë | ˈlżêma, ˈlżêmë |
| 2nd | ˈlżêsz | ˈlżêce | ˈlżêta, ˈlżête |
| 3rd | ˈlżê | ˈlgõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈlżëmë | ˈlżëma, ˈlżëmë |
| 2nd | ˈlżë | ˈlżëce | ˈlżëta, ˈlżëte |
| 3rd | ˈlżë | ˈlżëta, ˈlżëte | — |
| active present participle | ˈlgõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈlgõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈlgóny | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈlganjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈlgôùl Feminine: ˈlga Neuter: ˈlgalô | Virile: ˈlgêly Non-virile: ˈlgale | Virile: ˈlga Non-virile: ˈlgale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈdôżdac "to wait" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈdôżdã | ˈdôżdżemë | ˈdôżdżema, ˈdôżdżemë |
| 2nd | ˈdôżdżesz | ˈdôżdżece | ˈdôżdżeta, ˈdôżdżete |
| 3rd | ˈdôżdże | ˈdôżdõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈdôżdżimë | ˈdôżdżima, ˈdôżdżimë |
| 2nd | ˈdôżdżi | ˈdôżdżice | ˈdôżdżita, ˈdôżdżite |
| 3rd | ˈdôżdżi | ˈdôżdżita, ˈdôżdżite | — |
| active present participle | dôˈżdõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | dôˈżdõcë | ||
| past participle | dôˈżdóny | ||
| Verbal noun | dôˈżdanjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈdôżdôùl Feminine: dôżdżˈa Neuter: ˈdôżdalô | Virile: ˈdôżdêly Non-virile: ˈdôżdale | Virile: dôˈżda Non-virile: ˈdôżdale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈkrasc "to steal" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈkradnjã | ˈkradnjemë | ˈkradnjema, ˈkradnjemë |
| 2nd | ˈkradnjesz | ˈkradnjece | ˈkradnjeta, ˈkradnjete |
| 3rd | ˈkradnje | ˈkradnjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | kradˈnjimä | kradˈnjima, kradˈnjimä |
| 2nd | ˈkradnji | kradˈnjice | kradˈnjita, kradˈnjite |
| 3rd | ˈkradnji | ˈkradnjõ | — |
| active present participle | kradˈnjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | kradˈnjõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈkradly | ||
| Verbal noun | kradˈnjênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈkrod Feminine: ˈkradla Neuter: ˈkradlô | Virile: ˈkradly Non-virile: ˈkradle | Virile: ˈkradla Non-virile: ˈkradle | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈcygnõc "to pull" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈcygnjã | ˈcygnjemë | ˈcygnjema, ˈcygnjemë |
| 2nd | ˈcygnjesz | ˈcygnjece | ˈcygnjeta, ˈcygnjete |
| 3rd | ˈcygnje | ˈcygnjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | cëgˈnjimë | cëgˈnjima, cëgˈnjimë |
| 2nd | ˈcëgnji | cëgˈnjice | cëgˈnjita, cãgˈnjite |
| 3rd | ˈcëgnji | cëgˈnjice | — |
| active present participle | cygˈnjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | cygˈnõcë | ||
| past participle | cygˈnjôny | ||
| Verbal noun | cygˈnjênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈcygnón Feminine: ˈcygnã Neuter: ˈcygnanô | Virile: ˈcygnany Non-virile: ˈcygnane | Virile: ˈcygnã Non-virile: ˈcygnane | |
Class III1A comprises verbs with stem-final ⟨i, ë, ú, ô, a, n, m, r, rz⟩.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈszëc "to sew" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈszëjã | ˈszëjemë | ˈszëjema, ˈszëjemë |
| 2nd | ˈszëjesz | ˈszëjece | ˈszëjeta, ˈszëjete |
| 3rd | ˈszëje | ˈszëjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈszymë | ˈszyma, ˈszymë |
| 2nd | ˈszy | ˈszyca | ˈszita, ˈszitë |
| 3rd | ˈszy | — | — |
| active present participle | szëˈjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | szëˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈszëty | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈszëcé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈszél Feminine: ˈszëla Neuter: ˈszëlô | Virile: ˈszëli Non-virile: ˈszële | Virile: ˈszëla Non-virile: ˈszële | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| 'trzéc "to grate, to shred" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈtrzã | ˈtrzêmë | ˈtrzêma, ˈtrzêmë |
| 2nd | ˈtrzêsz | ˈtrzêce | ˈtrzêta, ˈtrzête |
| 3rd | ˈtrzê | ˈtrzõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈtrzëmë | ˈtrzëma, ˈtrzëmë |
| 2nd | ˈtrzë | ˈtrzëce | ˈtrzëta, ˈtrzëte |
| 3rd | ˈtrzë | — | — |
| active present participle | ˈtrzõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈtrzõce | ||
| past participle | ˈcarty | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈtrzênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈcar Feminine: ˈcarla Neuter: ˈcarlô | Virile: ˈcêrli Non-virile: ˈcarle | Virile: ˈcarla Non-virile: ˈcarle | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈcic "to cut" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | tnjã | ˈtnjêmë | ˈtnjêma, ˈtnjêmë |
| 2nd | ˈtnjêsz | ˈtnjêce | ˈtnjêta, ˈtnjête |
| 3rd | ˈtnjê | ˈtnjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈtnjimë | ˈtnjima, ˈtnjimë |
| 2nd | ˈtnji | ˈtnjice | ˈtnjita, ˈtnjite |
| 3rd | ˈtnjy | — | — |
| active present participle | ˈtnjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈtnjõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈcãty | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈcacé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈcón Feminine: ˈcã Neuter: ˈcanô | Virile: ˈcany Non-virile: ˈcane | Virile: ˈcã Non-virile: ˈcane | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈpôrc "to separate" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈpôrzã | ˈpôrzemë | ˈpôrzema, ˈpôrzemë |
| 2nd | ˈpôrzesz | ˈpôrzece | ˈpôrzeta, ˈpôrzete |
| 3rd | ˈpôrze | ˈpôrzõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | pôˈrzëmë | pôˈrzëma, pôˈrzëmë |
| 2nd | ˈpôrzë | pôˈrzëce | pôˈrzëta, pôˈrzëte |
| 3rd | ˈpôrzë | — | — |
| active present participle | pôˈrzõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | pôˈrzõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈpôrty | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈpôrcé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈpór Feminine: ˈpôrla Neuter: ˈpôrlô | Virile: ˈpôrly Non-virile: ˈpôrlw | Virile: ˈpôrla Non-virile: ˈpôrlëw | |
Class III1B comprises verbs whose past stems and the infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -a-.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈsoc "to sow" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈsêjã | ˈsêjemë | ˈsêjema, ˈsêjemë |
| 2nd | ˈsêje̯sz | ˈsêjece | ˈsêjeta, ˈsêjete |
| 3rd | ˈsêje | ˈsêjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈsémë | ˈséma, ˈsémë |
| 2nd | ˈsé | ˈséce | ˈséta, ˈséte |
| 3rd | ˈsé | — | — |
| active present participle | sêˈjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | sêˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈsóny | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈsênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈsôùl Feminine: ˈsa Neuter: ˈsalô | Virile: ˈsêly Non-virile: ˈsale | Virile: ˈsa Non-virile: ˈsale | |
Class III1Ca comprises verbs whose past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -a- and have e-present tenses and III1Cb has je-present tenses. Class III1D comprises verbs whose past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -ja-.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈklêpac "to knock, to rap" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈklêpjã | ˈklêpjemë | ˈklêpjema, ˈklêpjemë |
| 2nd | ˈklêpjesz | ˈklêpjece | ˈklêpjeta, ˈklêpjete |
| 3rd | ˈklêpje | ˈklêpjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | klêˈpjimë | klêˈpjima, klêˈpjimë |
| 2nd | ˈklêpji | klêˈpjice | klêˈpjita, klêˈpjite |
| 3rd | ˈklêpji | — | — |
| active present participle | klêˈpjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈklêpjõcë | ||
| past participle | klêˈpóny | ||
| Verbal noun | klêˈpanjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈklêpôùl Feminine: kleˈpa Neuter: ˈklêpalô | Virile: ˈklêpaly Non-virile: ˈklêpale | Virile: ˈklêpa Non-virile: ˈklêpale | |
Class III1E comprises verbs whose past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -ě-.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈcêc "to want" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | cã | ˈcêmë | ˈcêma, ˈcêmë |
| 2nd | ˈcêsz | ˈcêce | ˈcêta, ˈcête |
| 3rd | ˈcê | ˈcõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | — | — |
| 2nd | — | — | — |
| 3rd | — | — | — |
| active present participle | ˈcõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈcõcë | ||
| past participle | — | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈcênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈcôl Feminine: ˈca Neuter: ˈcalô | Virile: ˈcêly Non-virile: ˈcale | Virile: ˈca Non-virile: ˈcale | |
Class III2Aa comprises verb stems that start with a except for some primary verbs denominative and deverbative verbs. Class III2Ab comprises verb stems that with ě, only denominatives.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈtrzëmac "to hold" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈtrzymã | ˈtrzymomë | ˈtrzymoma, ˈtrzymomë |
| 2nd | ˈtrzymósz | ˈtrzymoce | ˈtrzymota, ˈtrzymote |
| 3rd | ˈtrzimo | ˈtrzymõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | trzëˈmôùmë | trzëˈmôùma, trzëˈmôùmë |
| 2nd | trzëˈmôù | trzëˈmôùce | trzëˈmôùta, trzëˈmôùte |
| 3rd | trzëˈmô | — | — |
| active present participle | trzëmajˈõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | trzëmaˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | trziˈmôny | ||
| Verbal noun | trziˈmanjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈtrzimôùl Feminine: trziˈma Neuter: ˈtrzimalô | Virile: ˈtrzimaly Non-virile: ˈtrzmale | Virile: trziˈma Non-virile: ˈtrzmale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈgrac "to play" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | grã | ˈgromë | ˈgroma, ˈgromë |
| 2nd | ˈgrosz | ˈgroce | ˈgrota, ˈgrote |
| 3rd | ˈgro | ˈgrõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈgrôùmë | ˈgrôùma, ˈgrôùmë |
| 2nd | ˈgrôù | ˈgrôùcë | ˈgrôùta, ˈgrôùtë |
| 3rd | ˈgrôù | — | — |
| active present participle | graˈjõcy, ˈgrõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | graˈjõcë, ˈgrõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈgróny | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈgranjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈgrôùl Feminine: ˈgra Neuter: ˈgralô | Virile: ˈgraly Non-virile: ˈgrale | Virile: ˈgra Non-virile: ˈgrale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈstarzec "to age" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈstarzejã | staˈrzêjemë | staˈrzêjema, staˈrzêjemë |
| 2nd | staˈrzêjesz | staˈrzêjece | staˈrzêjeta, staˈrzêjete |
| 3rd | staˈrzêjë | staˈrzêjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | staˈrzémë | staˈrzéma, staˈrzémë |
| 2nd | ˈstarzé | staˈrzéce | staˈrzéta, staˈrzéte |
| 3rd | ˈstarzé | — | — |
| active present participle | starzeˈjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | starzeˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | staˈrzaly | ||
| Verbal noun | staˈrzenjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈstarzôùl Feminine: ˈstarza Neuter: ˈstarzalô | Virile: ˈstarzely Non-virile: ˈstarzale | Virile: ˈstarza Non-virile: ˈstarzale | |
Class III2C comprises verb past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -a-, and includes verbs whose inflection starts with -u-. Class III2D past and infinitive stems are the same as the verbal stem, augmented by the suffix -ja- and whose inflection starts with -a-. III2Ca and III2Da comprise denominative verbs and III2Cb and III2Db are iteratives of a-verbs. In III2C the imperative and active present participle suppleted by those of class III2D. This inflection only exists in the Kluki and Wierzchocino-Siecie dialects. For Class III2D present tense and present adverbial participle are not present and are replaced by those of Class III2C.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| daˈrôwac "to gift" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈdarújã | daˈrújemë | daˈrújema, daˈrújemë |
| 2nd | daˈrújesz | daˈrújece | daˈrújeta, daˈrújete |
| 3rd | daˈrújù | daˈrújõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈdarôùmä | ˈdarôùma, ˈdarôùmë |
| 2nd | ˈdarôù | ˈdarôùce | ˈdarôùta, ˈdarôùte |
| 3rd | ˈdarôù | — | — |
| active present participle | daraˈjõcy, darˈõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | darúˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | darôˈwóny | ||
| Verbal noun | darôˈwanjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: daˈrôwôùl Feminine: darôˈwa Neuter: daˈrôwalô | Virile: daˈrôwaly Non-virile: daˈrôwale | Virile: daˈrôwa Non-virile: daˈrôwale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| daˈrac "to gift" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈdarújã | daˈrújemë | daˈrújema, daˈrújemë |
| 2nd | daˈrújesz | daˈrújecë | daˈrújeta, daˈrújete |
| 3rd | daˈrújù | daˈrújõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈdarôùmä | ˈdarôùma, ˈdarôùmë |
| 2nd | ˈdarôù | ˈdarôùce | ˈdarôùta, ˈdarôùte |
| 3rd | ˈdarôù | — | — |
| active present participle | daraˈjõcy, daˈrõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | darúˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | daˈróny | ||
| Verbal noun | daˈranjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: daˈrôùl Feminine: daˈra Neuter: daˈralô | Virile: daraly Non-virile: daˈrale | Virile: daˈra Non-virile: daˈrale | |
Class IV verbs end in ⟨-yc, -ëc⟩. Class IVAa comprises verbs whose stems end in ⟨p, b, f, w, m, n, k, zg, j⟩, and IVAb in the remaining consonants.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈczinjic "to make, to do" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈczinjã | ˈczinjymë | ˈczinjyma, ˈczinjymë |
| 2nd | ˈczinjysz | ˈczinjyce | ˈczinjita, ˈczinjïtä |
| 3rd | ˈczinjy | ˈczinjõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | cziˈnjymë | cziˈnjima, cziˈnjimë |
| 2nd | ˈczinji | cziˈnjice | cziˈnjita, cziˈnjite |
| 3rd | ˈczinji | — | — |
| active present participle | cziˈnjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈczinjõcë | ||
| past participle | czyˈnjôni | ||
| Verbal noun | cziˈnjênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈczinjél Feminine: cziˈnjyla Neuter: ˈczinjilô | Virile: ˈczinjily Non-virile: ˈczinjile | Virile: ˈczinjila Non-virile: ˈczinjile | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈmlôcëc "to thresh" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈmlócã | ˈmlócymë | ˈmlócyma, ˈmlócymë |
| 2nd | ˈmlócysz | ˈmlócyce | ˈmlócyta, ˈmlócite |
| 3rd | ˈmlócy | ˈmlócõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | mlôˈcëmë | mlôˈcëma, mlôˈcëmë |
| 2nd | ˈmlôcë | mlôˈcëce | mlôˈcëta, mlôˈcëte |
| 3rd | ˈmlôcë | — | — |
| active present participle | mlóˈcõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | ˈmlócõcë | ||
| past participle | mlóˈcôny | ||
| Verbal noun | mlóˈcênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈmlócél Feminine: mlóˈcëla Neuter: ˈmlócëlô | Virile: ˈmlócëly Non-virile: ˈmlócële | Virile: ˈmlócëla Non-virile: ˈmlócële | |
Class IVBa preserves softening of the final consonant, whereas IVBb does not.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈklëczec "to kneel" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈklëczã | ˈklëczymë | ˈklëczyma, ˈklëczymë |
| 2nd | ˈklëczysz | ˈklëczyce | ˈklëczyta, klȧčyte |
| 3rd | ˈklëczy | ˈklëczõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | klë'czimë | klë'czima, klë'czimë |
| 2nd | ˈklëczi | klë'czice | klë'czita, klë'czite |
| 3rd | ˈklëczi | — | — |
| active present participle | klëˈczõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | klëˈczõcë | ||
| past participle | klëˈczaly | ||
| Verbal noun | klëˈczênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈklëczôùl Feminine: ˈklëcza Neuter: ˈklëczalô | Virile: ˈklëczely Non-virile: ˈklëczale | Virile: ˈklëcza Non-virile: ˈklëczale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈsêdzec "to sit" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈsêdzã | ˈsêdzymë | ˈsêdzyma, ˈsêdzymë |
| 2nd | ˈsêdzysz | ˈsêdzyce | ˈsêdzyta, ˈsêdzyte |
| 3rd | ˈsêdzy | ˈsêdzõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | sêˈdzëmë | sêˈdzëma, sêˈdzëmë |
| 2nd | ˈsêdzë | sêˈdzëce | sêˈdzëta, sêˈdzëte |
| 3rd | ˈsêdzë | — | — |
| active present participle | sêˈdzõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | sêˈdzõcë | ||
| past participle | sêdzˈaly | ||
| Verbal noun | sêˈdzênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈsêdzôùl Feminine: ˈsêdza Neuter: ˈsêdzalô | Virile: ˈsêdzely Non-virile: ˈsêdzale | Virile: ˈsêdza Non-virile: ˈsêdzale | |
This class comprises nine base verbs (and their prefixed derivatives) which had the ending -m in the first person singular.
Va includes verbs whose present tense roots do not have any special stem-forming element. Vb includes verbs with reduplication. Vc includes the future tense of bˈëc. Vd includes verbs with a nasal infix.
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈbëc "to be" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈjêm | ˈjêsmë | ˈjêsma, ˈjêsmë |
| 2nd | ˈjês | ˈjêsce | ˈjêsta, ˈjêste |
| 3rd | ˈjê, ˈjêsta | ˈsõ | — |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈjêsc "to eat" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈjém | ˈjésmë | ˈjésma, ˈjésmë |
| 2nd | ˈjés | ˈjésce | ˈjésta, ˈjéste |
| 3rd | ˈjé | ˈjêdzõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈjémë | ˈjéma, ˈjémë |
| 2nd | ˈjés | ˈjésce | ˈjésta, ˈjéste |
| 3rd | ˈjés | — | — |
| active present participle | jêˈdzõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | jaˈdõce | ||
| past participle | jadly | ||
| Verbal noun | jêˈdzênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈjod Feminine: ˈjadla Neuter: ˈjadlô | Virile: ˈjêdly Non-virile: ˈjadle | Virile: ˈjadla Non-virile: ˈjadle | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈwjêdzec "to know" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈwjém | ˈwjésmë | ˈwjésma, ˈwjésmë |
| 2nd | ˈwjés | ˈwjésce | ˈwjésta, ˈwjéste |
| 3rd | ˈwjé | ˈwjêdzõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈwjémë | ˈwjéma, ˈwjémë |
| 2nd | ˈwjé | ˈwjéce | ˈwjéta, ˈwjéte |
| 3rd | ˈwjé | — | — |
| active present participle | wjêˈdzõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | wjêˈdzõcë | ||
| past participle | wjêˈdzly | ||
| Verbal noun | wjêˈdzênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈwjêdzôùl Feminine: ˈwjêdza Neuter: ˈwjêdzalô | Virile: ˈwjêdzely Non-virile: ˈwjêdzale | Virile: ˈwjêdza Non-virile: ˈwjêdzale | |
| Infinitive | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ˈmjêc "to have" | |||
| Present tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈmóm | ˈmómë | ˈmóma, ˈmómë |
| 2nd | ˈmos | ˈmoce | ˈmota, ˈmote |
| 3rd | ˈmo | ˈmajõ, ˈmõ | — |
| Imperative | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | — | ˈmjémë | ˈmjéma, ˈmjémë |
| 2nd | ˈmjé | ˈmjéce | ˈmjéta, ˈmjéte |
| 3rd | ˈmjé | — | — |
| active present participle | maˈjõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | maˈjõcë | ||
| past participle | ˈmjóny | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈmjênjé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈmjˈôùl Feminine: ˈmja Neuter: ˈmjalô | Virile: ˈmjêly Non-virile: ˈmjale | Virile: ˈmja Non-virile: ˈmjale | |
| ˈbëc (future tense) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Future tense | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| 1st | ˈbóm, ˈbõdã | ˈbómë | ˈbóma, ˈbómë |
| 2nd | ˈbõsz | ˈbõce | ˈbõta, ˈbõte |
| 3rd | ˈbõ | bõdõ | — |
| active present participle | bãˈdõcy | ||
| present adverbial participle | bãˈdõcë | ||
| Verbal noun | ˈbëcé | ||
| Past forms | Singular | Plural | Dual |
| Masculine: ˈbél Feminine: ˈbëla Neuter: ˈbëlô | Virile: ˈbëly Non-virile: ˈbële | Virile: ˈbëla Non-virile: ˈbële | |
Like nouns, verbs can have different stress patterns. The base form of the verb is the infinitive.
Affixless polysyllabic simple verbs have stress on the penultimate syllable of the infinitive, except drëˈżêc ("to shiver, to shake"); verbs whose stem ends in a consonant + eding ⟨-ac⟩ belonging to class III2D (⟨-újã⟩ in the first person present) always stress the first syllable, and all verbs ending in ⟨-oc⟩ can be stressed either on the penultimate or the final syllable.
Prefixed verbs maintain the position of the stress as in the prefixless one, except for drëˈżêc which can have a left-shifting stress when prefixed, e.g. ˈzadrëżêc.
Prefixed derived from monosyllabic verbs always show the stress on the very first syllable of the infinitive, except verbs ending in ⟨-nõc⟩, which show two alternative stresses if they are composed of with a polysyllabic prefix and three other verbs.
All perfective verbs and some imperfective verbs prefixed with ⟨vë-⟩ have stress on the prefix.
Present tense forms can have fixed and mobile stress patterns.
The basic forms for the present tense is the first person singular, which always has stress on the initial syllable, with one exception, drëˈżêc ("to shiver, to shake"), which has fixed stress on the first syllable of the inflectional suffix. All other form have the stress on the last syllable before the inflectional suffix. Class III2A (verbs in ⟨-ac⟩) show a regular stress shift onto the inflectional suffix in the third person plural.
drëˈżêc ("to shiver, to shake") and perfective verbs prefixed with ⟨wë-⟩ break this rule, and non-syllabic verb stems stick to this rule if they are composed with two prefixes or a bisyllabic prefix but have alternative forms with fixed stress. Only mobile stress is possible if the first prefix in such a verb is the negation particle ⟨njê-⟩.
Athematical verbs with one prefixed syllable are regular, and only the third person plural has enough syllables for a stress shift. However, in combination with two prefixed syllables, they behave as if the prefix consists of one syllable, so the stress is fixed except in the third person plural.
Non-prefixed verbs in the first person singular may shift the stress to the pronoun ⟨jo⟩ ("I") if it is before the verb (see Lorentz par 112). This stress shift is rare in monosyllabic present forms with a V1, but there are many exceptions
Verbs also display three types of alternations.
The past tense of verbs in ending in ⟨-nãc⟩ emphasize the feminine singular ending, in the other forms they withdraw the accent to the first syllable.
A general rule for the past tense forms is that the accent in all forms is withdrawn as much as possible.
If the infinitive has ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ as the stem vowel, (in class IA:Vsd), then there is no alternation, except for all verbs of class IA (except the stem ⟨-jõsc⟩ ("to carry, to bear") and a few class IIC verbs.
Class IA verbs show regular ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations; ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the infinitive and ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ everywhere else except the past masculine singular.
Class IIC verbs with any alternation (not all have it) change ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ into ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the imperative and often in all l-forms where /-l/ isnˈt the final phoneme of the word.
If verb has ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ as a stem vowel or a single vowel, verb classes IA (except lˈêsc ("to climb")), II, IIIA2, III2Ab, III2B, III2C, III2D, and IVB do not have a ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ or ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩~⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ alternation in the forms with an inflectional suffix vowel, but all other verbs are split into alternating and non-alternating (with ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj ŭ⟩ in the present and l-forms, and n-forms in the verbal noun) subclasses.
The past tense always shows ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ in the masculine singular, ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in all other cases except in classes IAa and IAc, where alternative forms with ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ can be found. This results in regular ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ ~ ⟨a, ô, e, ë, y, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternations.
The infinitive can have either ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ or ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ in the final syllable. III1A1a, III1A1b, III1A1c, III1A1d, IVAa, and IVAb, the inflectional suffix vowel (or only vowel in verbs with only one) is conditioned by the preceding consonant.
Classes III1A1a-e and III1A2c show the V2 of the infinitive for ⟨c⟩ forms of the verbal nouns. Class III1A2a shows ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩~⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternation. Classes IC, III1C, III1D, III1E, III2Aa, III2C, III2D, and IVC show the ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ of the infinitive for ⟨-n⟩ forms. Class III1A2b shows ⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩~⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩ alternation. Classes show III2Ab and IVB show⟨ë~ê⟩ alternations and not ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩~⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ since ⟨ë⟩ is the archiphoneme of /ə/ and /ɛ/ in this position; The other classes have ⟨-ˈênjé) without any rule.
In classes I, II, III1A2b, III1Ca, III1Cb, III1D, III1A2a, IVAa, IVAb, IVBa, and IVBb the inflectional suffix vowels ⟨ë⟩ and ⟨y⟩ in the imperative are conditioned by the preceding consonant. The imperative and present tense acquire a special treatment only when there is one vowel in the verb.
In the following verb classes the vowel show regular alternations in the imperative on the basis of the present tense forms if it is the only vowel in the verb:
Classes III2Ab and III2B show a regular alternation ⟨a, ô, e, ë, i, ã, ê, aj⟩ / ⟨ôˈù, ej, ĭ⟩~⟨o, ó, é, y, ú, õ, ˈôù, ˈôj, ŭ⟩ (⟨ˈê~éˈ⟩, the former in the present tense, the latter in the imperative.
Two classes of verbs have two sets of alternations:
The second type of alternations:
Conditioned by final stem consonant ⟨t, d, s, z, n, r, l⟩. Classes IB, III1B, and III2B show this alternation.
The third type of alternation is rare.