Sino-Japanese vocabulary, also known as, is a subset of Japanese vocabulary that originated in Chinese or was created from elements borrowed from Chinese. Some grammatical structures and sentence patterns can also be identified as Sino-Japanese.
Kango is one of three broad categories into which the Japanese vocabulary is divided. The others are native Japanese vocabulary (yamato kotoba) and borrowings from other, mainly Western languages (gairaigo). It has been estimated that about 60% of the words contained in modern Japanese dictionaries are kango,[1] and that about 18–20% of words used in common speech are kango. The usage of such kango words also increases in formal or literary contexts, and in expressions of abstract or complex ideas.
Kango, the use of Chinese-derived words in Japanese, is to be distinguished from kanbun, which is historical Literary Chinese written by Japanese in Japan. Both kango in modern Japanese and classical kanbun have Sino-xenic linguistic and phonetic elements also found in Korean and Vietnamese: that is, they are "Sino-foreign", meaning that they are not pure Chinese but have been mixed with the native languages of their respective nations. Such words invented in Japanese, often with novel meanings, are called wasei-kango. Many of them were created during the Meiji Restoration to translate non-Asian concepts and have been reborrowed into Chinese.
Kango is also to be distinguished from gairaigo of Chinese origin, namely words borrowed from modern Chinese dialects, some of which may be occasionally spelled with Chinese characters or kanji just like kango. For example, (Pekin, "Beijing") which was borrowed from a modern Chinese dialect, is not kango, whereas (Hokkyō, "Northern Capital", a name for Kyoto), which was created with Chinese elements, is kango.
See also: East Asian cultural sphere. Ancient China's enormous political and economic influence in the region had a deep effect on Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese and other Asian languages in East and Southeast Asia throughout history, in a manner somewhat similar to the preeminent position that Greek and Latin had in European history. For example, the Middle Chinese word for gunpowder, (pronounced as /xwa˧˥jak/),[2] is rendered as hwayak in Korean, and as kayaku in Japanese. At the time of their first contact, the existing Japanese language had no writing system, while the Chinese had a written language and a great deal of academic and scientific information, providing new concepts along with Chinese words to express them. Chinese became the language of science, learning, religion and government. The earliest written language to be used in Japan was literary Chinese, which has come to be called kanbun in this context. The kanbun writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese; this Sino-Japanese vocabulary is still an important component of the Japanese language, and may be compared to words of Latin or Greek origin in English.
Chinese borrowings also significantly influenced Japanese phonology, leading to many new developments such as closed syllables (CV(N), not just CV) and length becoming a phonetic feature with the development of both long vowels and long consonants. (See Early Middle Japanese: Phonological developments for details.)
Sino-Japanese words are almost exclusively nouns, of which many are verbal nouns or adjectival nouns, meaning that they can act as verbs or adjectives. Verbal nouns can be used as verbs by appending (e.g.), while an adjectival noun uses instead of (usual for nouns) when acting attributively.
In Japanese, verbs and adjectives (that is, inflecting adjectives) are closed classes, and despite the large number of borrowings from Chinese, virtually none of these became inflecting verbs or adjectives, instead being conjugated periphrastically as above.
In addition to the basic verbal noun + suru form, verbal nouns with a single-character root often experienced sound changes, such as → →, as in, and some cases where the stem underwent a sound change, as in, from .
The term kango is usually identified with, a system of pronouncing Chinese characters in a way that at one point approximated the original Chinese. On'yomi is also known as the 'Sino-Japanese reading', and is opposed to under which Chinese characters are assigned to, and read as, native Japanese vocabulary.
However, there are cases where the distinction between on'yomi and kun'yomi does not correspond to etymological origin. Chinese characters created in Japan, called, normally only have kun'yomi, but some kokuji do have on'yomi. One such character is (as in hataraku, "to work"), which was given the on'yomi dō (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component,) when used in compounds with other characters, e.g. in rōdō ("labor"). Similarly, the character ("gland") has the on'yomi sen (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, sen "spring, fountain"), e.g. in hentōsen "tonsils"; it was intentionally created as a kango and does not have a kun'yomi at all. Although not originating in Chinese, both of these are regarded as 'Sino-Japanese'.
By the same token, that a word is the kun'yomi of a kanji is not a guarantee that the word is native to Japanese. There are a few Japanese words that, although they appear to have originated in borrowings from Chinese, have such a long history in the Japanese language that they are regarded as native and are thus treated as kun'yomi, e.g., uma "horse" and ume. These words are not regarded as belonging to the Sino-Japanese vocabulary.
See main article: wasei-kango. While much Sino-Japanese vocabulary was borrowed from Chinese, a considerable amount was created by the Japanese themselves as they coined new words using Sino-Japanese forms. These are known as ; compare to .
Many Japanese-created kango refer to uniquely Japanese concepts. Examples include,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and Bushidō (Japanese: 武士道)
Another miscellaneous group of words were coined from Japanese phrases or crossed over from kun'yomi to on'yomi. Examples include henji (meaning 'reply', from native kaerigoto 'reply'), rippuku ('become angry', based on hara ga tatsu, literally 'belly/abdomen stands up'), shukka ('fire starts or breaks out', based on hi ga deru), and ninja (from shinobi-no-mono meaning 'person of stealth'). In Chinese, the same combinations of characters are often meaningless or have a different meaning. Even a humble expression like gohan (or 'cooked rice') is a pseudo-kango and not found in Chinese. One interesting example that gives itself away as a Japanese coinage is kaisatsu-guchi (literally 'check ticket gate'), meaning the ticket barrier at a railway station.
More recently, the best-known example is the prolific numbers of kango coined during the Meiji era on the model of Classical Chinese to translate modern concepts imported from the West; when coined to translate a foreign term (rather than simply a new Japanese term), they are known as . Often they use corresponding morphemes to the original term, and thus qualify as calques. These terms include words for new technology, like denwa ('telephone'), and words for Western cultural categories which the Sinosphere had no exact analogue of on account of partitioning the semantic fields in question differently, such as kagaku ('science'), shakai ('society'), and tetsugaku ('philosophy'). While many terms were coined afresh (such as and), many were repurposed classical Chinese compounds, whose meanings were tenuously similar to their western counterparts. Here are a few examples:
| Word | Classical Chinese meaning | Modern meaning | |
|---|---|---|---|
| teaching of the humanities | culture | ||
| workings of things | physics | ||
| imperial academician | doctor | ||
| compassionate outlook | pessimism | ||
| transformation | metamorphosis
| ||
| self-determination | freedom; liberty | ||
| dynastic change | revolution | ||
| crossing a river | transition | ||
| governance | economy | ||
| cooperative harmony; Gonghe Regency | non-monarchical government; republicanism | ||
| monarch | republican president; republicanism; democracy | ||
| (all-breaking) spear and (never-broken) shield | contradiction | ||
| earth-deity-worshipping community | society | ||
| weaving; formation | biological tissue |
Notably, the names of the military ranks used throughout the Sinosphere were neither coined anew nor repurposed from Classical Chinese, but were based on the ranks under the Ritsuryō government. Certain military agencies, such as the, the and the, were headed by officials titled with, and (see the Japanese article, 四等官), which later corresponded to "general officer", "senior officer" and "junior officer" in the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces and adopted by other militaries in China, Korea and Vietnam. See the articles for these ranks for more (Ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army, Comparative military ranks of Korea, Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force, Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Navy, Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Air Force, Republic of China Armed Forces rank insignia, Vietnamese military ranks and insignia).
Despite resistance from some contemporary Chinese intellectuals, many wasei kango were "back-borrowed" into Chinese around the turn of the 20th century. Such words from that time are thoroughly assimilated into the Chinese lexicon, but translations of foreign concepts between the two languages now occur independently of each other.[3] These "back-borrowings" gave rise to Mandarin diànhuà (from denwa), kēxué (from kagaku), shèhuì (from shakai) and zhéxué (from tetsugaku). Since the sources for the wasei kango included ancient Chinese texts as well as contemporary English-Chinese dictionaries, some of the compounds—including bunka ('culture', Mandarin wénhuà) and kakumei ('revolution', Mandarin gémìng)—might have been independently coined by Chinese translators, had Japanese writers not coined them first. A similar process of reborrowing occurred in the modern Greek language, which took back words like τηλεγράφημα telegrafíma ('telegram') that were coined in English from Greek roots. Many of these words have also been borrowed into Korean and Vietnamese, forming (a modern Japanese) part of their Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese vocabularies.
Alongside these translated terms, the foreign word may be directly borrowed as gairaigo. The resulting synonyms have varying use, usually with one or the other being more common. For example, yakyū and bēsubōru both translate as 'baseball', where the yakugo is more common. By contrast, teikyū and tenisu both translate as 'tennis', where the gairaigo is more common. Note that neither of these is a calque – they translate literally as 'field ball' and 'garden ball'. ('Base' is rui, but ruikyū is an uncommon term for 'softball', which itself is normally sofutobōru).
Finally, quite a few words appear to be Sino-Japanese but are varied in origin, written with — kanji assigned without regard for etymology. In many cases, the characters were chosen only to indicate pronunciation. For example, sewa ('care, concern') is written, using the on'yomi "se" + "wa" ('household/society' + 'talk'); although this word is not Sino-Japanese but a native Japanese word believed to derive from sewashii, meaning 'busy' or 'troublesome'; the written form is simply an attempt to assign plausible-looking characters pronounced "se" and "wa". Other ateji of this type include mendō ('face' + 'fall down' = 'bother, trouble') and yabo ('fields' + 'livelihood' = 'uncouth'). (The first gloss after each character roughly translates the kanji; the second is the meaning of the word in Japanese.)
On'yomi were originally used in ondoku (Japanese: 音読 "sound reading"), the Japanese system for reading aloud texts in the Middle Chinese (MC) language. A huge number of loanwords entered the Japanese language from Middle Chinese, intermediated by these conventionalized pronunciations. There are different types of on'yomi for Sino-Japanese vocabulary, depending mainly on the time period of borrowing.
Go-on (Japanese: 呉音 "Wu sound") readings represent the first major wave of Chinese borrowing in the 5th and 6th centuries, coinciding with the introduction of Buddhism in Japan. It is not agreed whether Go-on pronunciations are clearly derived from a particular dialect of Middle Chinese. Buddhist teachings along with the Chinese language were largely imported through the Korean peninsula, and it is unclear to what extent this fact influenced the Go-on pronunciations. Certain genres of modern vocabulary largely use Go-on readings, especially words related to Buddhism and law.
Kan-on (Japanese: 漢音 "Han sound") readings were introduced in the 7th through 9th centuries during the Tang dynasty, and are based on the central Chang'an pronunciation of Middle Chinese. While there was a large-scale effort to replace Go-on readings with Kan-on readings when pronouncing Chinese texts in Japan, this effort did not extend to changing the pronunciation of borrowed words that were already used in Japanese.[4] Massive borrowing of Chinese loanwords continued during this period, and these new borrowings reflected the new Kan-on readings. Today, Kan-on readings are the most commonly encountered type of on'yomi.
Kan'yō-on (Japanese: 慣用音 "customary sound") readings are not considered to follow the regular patterns for adapting either Go-on or Kan-on readings, but are commonly encountered in existing Sino-Japanese words. In some cases, the Kan'yō-on reading is in fact a regular development of the original Go or Kan on'yomi in a particular environment. For example, Japanese: 拉 (MC lop) has the Kan'yō-on reading /raQ/ (or /ra/) in all Sino-Japanese words, which is the regular development of earlier /rap(u)/ before a voiceless obstruent. A common irregularity for Kan'yō-on is an unexpected voicing value for an initial obstruent. For example, Japanese: 斬 (MC tʂɛmX) is read in all Sino-Japanese words as /zaN/ rather than the expected Kan-on reading /saN/.
Tō-on/Sō-on (Japanese: 唐音 "Tang sound" or Japanese: 宋音 "Song sound") readings were introduced mostly from the 12th century onward, during and after the Song dynasty. "Tang" was in this context used to mean "Chinese" (i.e. "real Chinese pronunciation"), with no intended connection to the earlier Tang Dynasty. Due to their more recent borrowing, Tō-on readings are sometimes more recognizably similar to Modern Chinese pronunciations. There are far fewer Sino-Japanese loanwords with Tō-on readings compared to Go-on and Kan-on readings. Dictionaries do not attempt to provide a Tō-on reading for each kanji as many do for Go-on and Kan-on readings.
Go-on and Kan-on readings have a special status when compared with other on'yomi types. Arising initially out of the need to be able to read any Chinese text aloud using ondoku, there is a long-standing practice of providing a Go and Kan reading for every kanji, even those which have never actually been used in borrowed Sino-Japanese vocabulary. The readings which are not actually encountered in Sino-Japanese loanwords were largely codified in the Edo period through the philological study of Chinese rime tables. These readings are given in many dictionaries, though for the less common kanji there is sometimes disagreement between sources.
All characters used to write Middle Chinese represented a single syllable in the spoken language, made up of an "initial" (a single onset consonant), and a rime (the remainder of the syllable). Originally, the on'yomi for kanji attempted to closely match the Middle Chinese pronunciation for each character, while guided by the possible sounds and structures of Japanese as spoken at the time. In fact a number of new word shapes entered the language to accommodate the large influx of Chinese borrowings. Subsequently, many sound changes took place in Japanese, affecting both borrowed and native vocabulary. As such, on'yomi now often bear little resemblance to their original Middle Chinese source, and are even less similar to the pronunciation of the same characters in modern Chinese languages, which have undergone many changes from Middle Chinese. For example, Japanese: 兄 (MC xjwæŋ) had the Go-on pronunciation [kwjaũ] when it was first borrowed, which subsequently developed to [kjaũ], then [kjau], then [kjɔː], and finally modern Japanese /kyō/ [kjoː].
The Early Middle Chinese (EMC) initials have the following regular correspondences in Go and Kan on'yomi.
| EMC | Go | Kan | EMC | Go | Kan | EMC | Go | Kan | EMC | Go | Kan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p(h) | p>h | t(h), ʈ(h) | t | ts(h), tʂ(h), tɕ(h) | s | k(h) | k | |||||
| b | b | p>h | d, ɖ | d | t | dz, dʐ, dʑ | z | s | g | g | k | |
| m | m | b, m | n, ɳ | n | d, n | ɲ | n | z | ŋ | g | ||
| s, ʂ, ɕ | s | x | k | |||||||||
| z, ʑ | z | s | ɣ | g, Ø | k, Ø | |||||||
| l | r | y | y, Ø | ʔ | Ø | |||||||
Middle Chinese rimes or "finals" contained a vowel, optional glides before the vowel (sometimes called "medials"), and an optional coda consonant /j, w, m, n, ŋ, p, t, k/— schematically (j)(w)V(C). The precise phonetic realization of the MC vowels is debated, and the set of vowels possible before different coda consonants varies considerably. When borrowed into Japanese, the more complicated MC vowel system was adapted to fit the Japanese five vowel system with /i, e, a, o, u/. MC rimes could begin with a glide /w/, /j/, or both /jw/. The earliest Japanese on'yomi allow the following sequences containing glides:
| Historical kana (codified c. 13th century) with glides /y, w/ | ||
|---|---|---|
| や, よ, ゆ | ya, yo, yu | |
| きや, きよ, きゆ (etc.) | Cya, Cyo, Cyu (C = any consonant) | |
| わ, ゑ, ゐ, を | wa, we, wi, wo | |
| くわ, ぐわ, くゑ, ぐゑ | kwa, gwa, kwe, gwe | |
| Additional "ancient" kana (used even earlier) | ||
| ye | ||
| ゐや, くゐや, ぐゐや | wya, kwya, gwya | |
| つゐ, づゐ, すゐ, ずゐ, るゐ, くゐ, ぐゐ, ゆゐ | twi, dwi, swi, zwi, rwi, kwi, gwi, ywi | |
The tables below show the regular correspondences between MC rimes and Japanese on'yomi (Go and Kan readings). The rimes are given in the transcription systems of Bernhard Karlgren, Li Rong, and William Baxter (see Middle Chinese finals for more transcription systems). Examples are given using the MC reconstructions from Karlgren's Grammata Serica Recensa (GSR), with the rimes transcribed using Baxter's system (see Character List for Karlgren's GSR). Japanese on'yomi are given in a phonemic transcription (see Japanese phonology).
Different MC rimes were restricted to following only certain MC initial consonants. Furthermore, the identity of the initial consonant sometimes results in a different regular outcome for the Japanese on'yomi. For the purposes of determining the Japanese on'yomi, the following sets of consonants can be distinguished:
| Japanese consonants | Middle Chinese consonants | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| P | p>h, b, m | p(h), b, m | |
| T | t, d | t(h), d, ʈ(h), ɖ | |
| S | s, z | ts(h), dz, tʂ(h), dʐ, tɕ(h), dʑ, s, z, ɕ, ʑ, ʂ, (y) | |
| K | k, g | k(h), g, ŋ, x, ɣ | |
| Ø | Ø (no consonant) | ʔ, (y), sometimes ɣ |
While the correspondences between MC rimes and Japanese on'yomi are rather consistent, there exists considerably more irregularity than is represented in these tables. Exceptional pronunciations are often found even for officially recognized Go and Kan readings. Furthermore, many kanji have Kan'yō-on readings, which by definition do not follow the regular correspondences, but appear in established Sino-Japanese words. The illusion of regularity is bolstered by the fact that lexicographers generally provide Go and Kan readings for characters based on their expected outcome, even when these readings are not actually employed in any Japanese word. Out of necessity, many of the examples shown below are of this type. Readings in the jōyō kanji list are highlighted in blue.
These MC rimes have no consonant after the vowel.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on | |
| ɑ | ɑ | a | • | • | • | • | • | a | pa,, ; ta,, ; tsa(H),, ; ka,, ; ɣa, ga, ; ʔa, a, a | ||
| a | a | æ | • | • | • | • | • | e ya (T, S) | a | mæX, me, ; pæX, he, ; mæ, me, ba;, kæ,, ;, ɣæX/H,, ; / ʔæH, e, ʈæH, tya, ta;, ʂæ,, ; tʂæH, sya, | |
| uɑ | uɑ | wa | • | • | • | ~ | a wa>a (K) wa (Ø) | dwaX/H,, ta; twaX, ta, ta; dzwaX, za, sa khwa, kwa>, kwa>; kwa, kwa>ka, kwa>ka; ŋwaH, gwa>ga, gwa>ga ɣwa,, kwa>ka | |||
| wa | ua | wæ | • | • | • | e we>e (K, Ø) | a wa>a (K) wa (Ø) | tʂwæ, se, sa xwæ,, kwa>; ŋwæX, gwe>ge, gwa> ʔwæ, e, wa | |||
| i̯ɑ | iɑ | ja | • | ya | gja, gya, kya | ||||||
| i̯a | ia | jæ | • | • | ʑjæ,, sya; tshjæX, sya, sya; zjæ,, sya; sjæH, sya, sya; tsjæ, sa, sya; yjæX, ya/e, ya;,, yjæ,, | ||||||
| i̯wɑ | iuɑ | jwa | (no example in GSR) | ||||||||
| uo | o | u | • | • | • | • | • | u | o wo>o (Ø) | / buH,, ; mu,, ; puH,, ho; tu,, ; / du, du>, ; suH,, ; tsu, su, ; ku, ku, , ʔu, u, wo>o | |
| i̯wo | iɔ | jo | • | • | • | • | yo o (K, Ø) | yo | ɳjoX,, dyo>; / ʈjo, tyo, tyo; ɲjo(H),, ; zjoX, zyo, khjoH,, ; kjoH,, ; ŋjoH,, ; kjo, ko, ; ŋjo,, gyo; ʔjo(H), o, yo | ||
| i̯u | io | ju | • | • | • | • | • | u | u yu (S) | mjuX,, ; mju,, ; pju, hu, hu; / ljuH, ru, ru; ŋjuX, gu, gu; ɣjuH, u, u sju,, syu; tsju, su, syu; dzjuH, zu, syu; dʐju, zyu, su | |
These MC rimes are analyzed as having a palatal glide after the vowel, though not all of the rimes end in a phonetic [j] in all MC transcription systems. These mostly end up as Japanese ai, e, ē, i, or ui.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) | |
| ɑ̌i | ɒi | oj | • | • | • | • | ai | , dojH,, ; / doj,, ; tsoj,, ; sojH,, ; kojX,, ; ʔoj,, | |||
| ɑi | ɑi | aj | • | • | • | • | ~ | paiH, hai, hai; laiH, rai, rai; dajH,, ; thaiH,, ; tshajH, sai, sai; ɣaj,, kai | |||
| ə̆i | ɛi | ɛj | • | • | • | • | e | ai | / pɛjH, he, ; dʐɛj, ze, sai;, kɛjH, ke, ; ɣɛjH, ge, kai; ʔɛjH, e, ai | ||
| ai | ɛ | ɛ | • | • | • | • | bɛX, be, hai; mɛX, me, ; ʂɛX, se, sai; ɣɛH/X,, ; ʔɛH, e, ai | ||||
| ai | ai | æj | • | ~ | ~ | ~ | mæjH, me, bai; pæjH/bæjH, he/be, | ||||
| uɑ̌i | uɒi | woj | • | • | • | • | • | ai we>e (K, Ø) | ai wai>ai (K) wai (Ø) | bwojH, bai, hai; mwoj, mai/me, ; nwojX, nai, dai; / twojH,, ; twoj, tai, tai, (tui); tshwojH, sai, sai kwojH, kwe>ke, kwai>kai; khwojX, kwe>ke, kwai>kai; khwoj/khwɛj, ke, ʔwoj, we>e, wai | |
| wɑi | uɑi | waj | • | • | • | ~ | / thwaj, tai, tai; tswajH,, / ɣwajH/kwajH, we>/kwe>ke, kwai>; ŋwaiH, gwe>, gwai> ʔwaiH, kai, kai, (wai); / ɣwajH, we>, kwai> | ||||
| wə̆i | uɛi | wɛj | • | • | kwɛjH, kwe>ke, kwai>; khwɛjH, ke, kai; kwɛj, ke, kwai>kai ʔwɛj, we>e, wai; / ɣwɛjH, we>e, kwai>; ɣwɛj, we>e, kwai>kai, (wai) | ||||||
| wai | uɛ | wɛ | • | • | kwɛH, ke, kai; kwɛH, kwe>ke, kwai>kai ʔwɛ, we>e, wai | ||||||
| wai | uai | wæj | ~ | • | ~ | ɣwæjH, e, kai, ; kwæjH, ke, kai; khwæjH, kwe>ke, kwai> | |||||
| i̯ɛi | iɛi | jej | • | • | • | • | ai, (e) ei>ē, (e) (Ø) | ei>ē | ljejH, rai, rai/rē; ljejH, re, ; ʈhjejH, tai, tē; ɕjejH,, ; tsjejH,, sē; tɕjejH, sai, sē; khjejH, kai, yjejH, yei>ē, yei>ē; yjejH, ē, ē; yjejH, e, ē | ||
| i̯ɛi | jɛi | jiej | • | ~ | e, (ai) | pjiejH, he, ;, bjiejH, be, ; mjiejH, mai, bē | |||||
| iei | ei | ej | • | • | • | • | • | ai e (K) | pejH, hai, hē; mejX,, ; / thejX,, ; / lejX,, ; dejH, dai, tē; sej,, ; sejH, sai, sē kej, ke, kē; khejH, ke, ʔej(H), ai, ē | ||
| i̯æi | iɐi | joj | • | • | o, (ai) e (K) | ai | / pjojH, ho, ; bjojH, bai/o, hai; phjojH, ho, , ŋjojH, ge, gai | ||||
| i̯wɛi | iuɛi | jwej | • | • | • | • | ai, e, ei>ē we>e (K, Ø) | ei>ē wei>ē (K, Ø) | ʈjwejH, tai, tē; ɲjwejH, ne/nē, zē; tshjwejH, sai, sē, (zē); tshjwejH/tʂhjwejH, sai, sē; zjwejH, zē, sē; / ɕjwejH, se, sē, ; tɕjwejH, se, sē, (zē) kjwejH, kwe>ke, kwei>kē; / yjwejH,, ; ɣjwejH, we>e, wei> | ||
| i̯wɛi | juɛi | jwiej | (no example in GSR) | ||||||||
| i̯wæi | iuɐi | jwoj | • | • | we>e | wai>ai (K) wai (Ø) | xjwoj, kwe>ke, kwai>kai ʔjwoj, e, wai | ||||
| iwei | uei | wej | • | wei>ē | khwej, ke, kē; kwej, kwe>ke, kwei>kē; ɣwej, we>e, kwei>kē; /, ɣwejH, we>, kwei> | ||||||
| iě | ie | je | • | • | • | • | • | i | mjeX, mi, bi; ɖje, di>zi, ; tsjeX,, ; ɕje,, ; gje/kje, gi/, ; ʔjeH, i, i | ||
| iě | je | jie | • | • | • | mjieX, mi, bi; phjieX, bi, hi; khjieH,, ; ʔjieH, i, i | |||||
| i | i | ij | • | • | • | • | • | pijH,, ; dijH, di>, ; tshijH,, ; dzijH,, ; sijH, si, si; kijX,, ; ʔijH, i, i | |||
| i | ji | jij | • | • | • | • | bjijH,, hi; mjijH, mi, bi; ɲjijH,, zi; ɕjijX,, ; ʑjijH,, ; khjijH,, ; yjij, i, i; ʔjij, i, i | ||||
| i | iǝ | i | • | • | • | • | ʈiH,, ; ɖi(H)/ɖijH, di>, ; tsiX,, ; ʂiX,, ; kiX,, ; xi, ki, ki; ŋi,, ; / ʔi,, | ||||
| ěi | iǝi | jɨj | • | • | • | i e (K, Ø) | i | phjɨjH,, ; mjɨjH,, bi gjɨj, gi/ge, ; / khjɨjH,, ; ŋjɨjH, ge, gi; ʔjɨj(H), e, | |||
| wiě | iue | jwe | • | • | • | • | wi>ui (T, S) wi>i | ɖjwe, dwi>zui, twi>tui; ʈjweH, tui, tui; ljwe, rui, rui; / zjwe,, sui ŋjwe, gwi>gi, gwi>gi, ; kjweX, kwi>ki, kwi>ki; ɣjwe, wi>, wi> | |||
| wiě | jue | jwie | • | • | khjwie, ki, ki; kjwie,, ; ʔjwieH, i, i | ||||||
| wi | ui | wij | • | • | • | • | lwjijH,, ; ʂwij, sui, sui kwijH, kwi>ki, kwi>ki; ɣwijX, wi>i, wi>i | ||||
| wi | jui | jwij | ~ | • | ~ | ɲjwij, ni, zui; ɕjwijX, swi>, swi>; yjwij,, wi> kjwijH,, ; gjwijH, gi, ki | |||||
| wěi | iuǝi | jwɨj | • | • | we>e wi>i (after MC ɣ) | wi>i | xjwɨj, ke, ; ŋjwɨjH, gwe>ge, gwi>gi; ʔjwɨjH, we>e, wi> ɣjwɨjH, wi>i, wi>i; ɣjwɨjH, wi>i, wi>i; ɣjwɨjH, wi>, wi> | ||||
The MC rimes ending in a labial glide were for the most part borrowed as diphthongs in Japanese. These later monophthongized as long vowels, such that these MC rimes mostly correspond to modern Japanese ō, yō, ū, or yū.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) | |
| ɑu | ɑu | aw | • | • | • | • | • | au>ō | pawX, hō, hō ; tawX, tau>, tau>; tsawH, sau>sō, sau>sō; khaw, kau>kō, kau>kō; / ʔawH, au>, au> | ||
| au | au | æw | • | • | • | • | • | eu>yō | au>ō | mæw, meu>myō, bau>bō; pæw, peu>hyō, pau>; ɖæwH, deu>zyō, tau>tō; tʂæwX, seu>syō, sau>sō; kæwH, kyō, kō; khæwH/X, kyō, kau>; ʔæw, eu>yō, au>ō | |
| i̯ɛu | iɛu | jew | • | • | • | • | • | eu>yō | pjewX, peu>, peu>; ʈhjew, teu>, teu>; tsjew, seu>, seu>; gjew, geu>gyō, keu>kyō; ʔjew, eu>, eu>; yjewH, yeu>eu>, yeu>eu> | ||
| i̯ɛu | jɛu | jiew | • | • | • | mjiewH, meu>, beu>byō; gjiew, geu>gyō, keu>kyō; ʔjiew(H), yeu>eu>, yeu>eu> | |||||
| ieu | eu | ew | • | • | • | • | lewH, reu>, reu>ryō; sewH, seu>syō, seu>syō; kew, keu>kyō, keu>kyō; ʔewX, eu>yō, eu>yō | ||||
| ə̆u | u | uw | • | • | • | • | • | u | ou>ō | phuwX, hu, hō, ; duwH, du>, ; duw, du>, ; tsuwX, su, ; khuwX,, ; kuwX, ku, kō; ɣuw, gu, ; / ʔuw, u, ō | |
| iə̆u | iu | juw | • | • | • | • | • | u iu>yū (T) yu (S) | ū (P) iu>yū | bjuwX, bu, hū, ; pjuw(X),, hū; mjuw,, ʈjuwX, tyū, tyū; ɖjuwH, diu>zyū, tiu>; / ʈjuwH, tiu>, tiu>; ɲjuw, niu>, ziu> sjuwH, syu, ; zjuw, zyu, siu>; sjuw,, siu> , kjuwX,, kiu>;, ɣjuwX,, iu>; ɣjuwH, u, iu>yū; ʔjuw, u, iu> yjuw,, iu>, ;, yjuw,, iu>yū; yjuw, iu>, iu> | |
| i̯ĕu | iĕu | jiw | • | • | • | iu>yū | mjiw, miu>myū, biu>byū; pjiw, piu>hyū, piu>hyū; kjiwX, kiu>, kiu>; ʔjiwH, iu>yū, iu>yū, (eu>) | ||||
MC coda /m/ was originally written in Japanese with the man'yōgana Japanese: 无, which came to stand for the nasal special mora /N/. The manyō'gana Japanese: 无 developed into the hiragana ん used to represent /N/. It is possible that Japanese: 无 originally represented two distinct sounds, moraic /m/ and moraic /n/ (from MC coda /n/, see below), but they may have been pronounced identically in Sino-Japanese vocabulary from the start. Regardless, Japanese: 无 would not have stood for /mu/ in these words (the Go-on reading), just as the precursors of hiragana つ represented /t/ and not /tu/ when adapting the MC coda /t/ (see below). Native /mu/ from this time (man'yōgana Japanese: 牟 or Japanese: 武, among others) remains /mu/, developing to /N/ only under very specific circumstances, while the borrowed moraic /m/ always develops to /N/.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) |
| ɑm | ɑm | am | • | • | • | ~ | an | lam, ran, ran; sam(H),, ; / dzam, zan, san; kam,, | ||
| ɑ̌m | ɒm | om | • | • | • | • | on | an | thom, ton, tan, ;, nom,, ; / tshomX, son, ; khomX, kon, kan; ɣom, gon, kan, ; ʔomH, on, | |
| i̯wæm | iuɐm | jom | • | ~ | bjom,, ; phjomH, hon, han | |||||
| ə̆m | ɐm | ɛm | ~ | • | • | ~ | en | ɖɛmX, den, tan; tʂɛmX, sen, san, ; ɣem, gen, kan | ||
| am | am | æm | • | • | ʂæm, sen, san; kæm(H), ken, ; ɣæm, gen, kan | |||||
| i̯ɛm | iɛm | jem | • | • | • | • | • | en | pjemX, hen, hen; ʈjem, ten, ten; tɕjem(H),, ; / tshjem, sen, sen; / yjemH, yen>, yen>; gjem, gen, ken; ʔjemX, en, en | |
| i̯ɛm | jɛm | jiem | • | ʔjiem(H), en, en, (on); ʔjiemX/H, en, en, (on) | ||||||
| iem | em | em | • | ~ | • | / temX,, ; kem(H),, | ||||
| i̯æm | iɐm | jæm | ~ | • | ~ | on | en | / ŋjæm,, ; / kjæmH, kon, ; khjæmH, kon, ken | ||
| i̯ǝm | iǝm | im | • | • | • | • | • | in on (K, Ø) | in | pimX, hin, hin; zim, zin, sin; lim,, , kim,, ; gim, gon, kin; ʔim,, |
| i̯ǝm | jǝm | jim | • | ~ | in | ɕjimX,, ;, yjim, in, in; ɲjim, nin, jin yjim,, ; ʔjim, in/an/on (unclassified On readings) | ||||
MC coda /n/ was adapted in Japanese as the nasal special mora /N/.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) | ||
| ɑn | ɑn | an | • | • | • | • | • | an | panH,, ; banX/H,, ; / tan,, ; tanH, /, ; sanX/H,, ; kan,, ; ʔan,, | |||
| an | an | æn | • | • | • | • | en | an | / mæn, men, ; pænX, hen, ; ʂænH, sen, san; kæn, ken, kan; ʔænH, en, an | |||
| ə̆n | ɛn | ɛn | • | • | • | • | • | bɛnH, ben, han; ɖɛn, den, ; ʂɛn, sen, ; kɛn,, ; kɛnX, ken, kan; ʔɛn, en, an | ||||
| i̯ɛn | iɛn | jen | • | • | • | • | ~ | en | / pjenH,, ; ʈjenX,, ; ɲjen,, ; sjenH,, ; gjen, gen, ken; yjen(H), yen>, yen> | |||
| i̯ɛn | jɛn | jien | • | • | bjien,, hen; pjien, hen, hen; mjienH,, ben; khjienX/H,, | |||||||
| ien | en | en | • | • | • | • | • | phenH,, ; denH/tenH,, ; lenH, ren, ren; senH, sen, sen; kenH,, ; ʔen(H), en, en | ||||
| uɑn | uɑn | wan | • | • | • | • | an wan>an (K) wan (Ø) | twanX,, ; / lwanH,,, (ron); swanX,, kwan, kwan>, kwan>; ɣwan, gwan>, kwan>kan ʔwanX, wan, wan | ||||
| wan | uan | wæn | • | • | ~ | en wen>en (K) | an wan>an (K) | tʂhwænH, sen, san; ʂwænH, sen, san kwænH, kwen>ken, kwan>kan; ɣwænH, gen, kwan> | ||||
| wə̆n | uɛn | wɛn | • | kwɛn(H), kwen>ken, kwan>kan; ɣwɛnH, gwen>, kwan>kan | ||||||||
| i̯æn | iɐn | jon | • | • | • | on | an en (K, Ø) | bjon, bon, han; / mjonH, mon, ŋjon,, ; xjon, kon, ; kjonH,, ; ʔjonX, on, en | ||||
| i̯wɛn | iuɛn | jwen | • | • | • | • | en wen>en (K, Ø) | / ʈjwenH,, ; sjwen,, ; dzjwen,, sen; ɲjwenX, nen, zen, / gjwen,, ; gjwen, gwen>gen, kwen>; kjwenX, ken, ken, (kwan>);,, yjwen,, | ||||
| i̯wɛn | juɛn | jwien | • | • | kjwienH,, ; ʔjwien, en, en | |||||||
| iwen | uen | wen | • | • | khwenH, kwen>, kwen>; ɣwen, gwen>, ken; ʔwen, wen>en, wen>en | |||||||
| ǝn | ǝn | on | • | • | on | kon,, ; ɣon, gon, ; ʔon,, | ||||||
| wǝn | uǝn | won | • | • | • | • | • | on won>on (Ø) | pwon,, ; dwon, don, ; tshwonH,, son; dzwon,, ; tswon,, ; kwon,, ; khwonH,, / ʔwon, won>, won> | |||
| i̯wæn | iuɐn | jwon | • | • | on won>on (Ø) | wen>en | khjwonX, kon, kwen>; ŋjwon, gon, gwen> ɣjwon, won>on, wen>en; ʔjwon(H), won>, wen>; ʔjwonX, won>on, wen>en | |||||
| i̯ɛn | iɛn | in | • | • | • | • | ~ | in on (K) | in | bin,, ; ʈin(H),, ; linH, rin, rin; tsinH,, kin, kon, ; ŋin, gon, gin | ||
| i̯ēn | iēn | in | (same as above in Baxter's transcription) | |||||||||
| i̯ēn | jēn | jin | • | • | • | • | in | pjin(H),, ; ɲjin,, ; ʑjin,, ; dʑjin,, ; yjinX/H,, ; kjinX,, ; ʔjin,, | ||||
| i̯wēn | iuēn | win | • | • | • | • | in (after /r/) yun (T, S) on (K) win>in (Ø) | in (after /r/) yun (T, S) win>in (K, Ø) | ,,,, lwin,, ʈhwin, tyun, tyun; zwin,, ; swinX, syun, syun gwinX, gon, kwin>kin; khwin, kon, kin; kwin, kon, kwin>kin ɣwinX, win>in, win>in; ʔwin/khwin, in/gin, in/kin | |||
| i̯uēn | iuēn | win | (same as above in Baxter's transcription) | |||||||||
| i̯uēn | juēn | jwin | • | • | ~ | yun (S) win>in (K, Ø) | ʑjwin,, syun; ɕjwinX, syun, syun ; ɲjwinH, nin, kjwin,, ; yjwinX, win>in (unclassified On) | |||||
| i̯ǝn | iǝn | jɨn | • | • | on | in | kjɨn, kon, ; gjɨnX/H, gon, ; /, ʔjɨnX, on, | |||||
| i̯uǝn | iuǝn | jun | • | • | • | un, (on) | un | bjunH,, ;, bjunX, bun, ;, mjun,, ; kjun, kun, kun, ; kjun,, ; ʔjunH, un, un (won>on) | ||||
MC coda /ŋ/ was borrowed as a single Japanese phoneme which was realized as two nasalized offglides: [ĩ] after /e/, and [ũ] after /u, o, a/. The nasality of these glides was generally not represented in writing, but in some cases was indicated with the same diacritic mark that would become the dakuten used to mark prenasalized obstruents. These glides then denasalized, and the resulting diphthongs later monophthongized as long vowels. As such, almost all characters with the MC coda /ŋ/ end in ō, yō, ē, ū, or yū in modern Japanese on'yomi.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) | |
| ɑŋ | ɑŋ | aŋ | • | • | • | • | • | aũ>ō | paŋH, hō, hō; daŋ, daũ>dō, taũ>; tshaŋ, saũ>, saũ>; kaŋ, kaũ>kō, kaũ>kō; ʔaŋ, ō, ō | ||
| æŋ | ɐŋ | æŋ | • | • | • | • | yaũ>yō | aũ>ō | mæŋ, myaũ>myō, maũ>; phæŋ, pyaũ>hyō, paũ>hō; ʈhæŋ, tyō, tō; ʂæŋ, syō, sō ɣæŋ(H), gyaũ>, kaũ>;,, khæŋ, kyaũ>kyō, kaũ>; xæŋ, kaũ>kō, kyaũ> | ||
| ɛŋ | ɛŋ | ɛŋ | • | • | • | • | • | , mɛŋ, myaũ>myō, maũ>mō; pɛŋ, pyaũ>hyō, paũ>hō; ʈɛŋ, tyaũ>, taũ>tō; / tʂɛŋ, syaũ>syō, saũ> / ɣɛŋ, gyō, kō, ; /, ʔɛŋ, yaũ>yō, aũ>ō | |||
| ɔŋ | ɔŋ | æwŋ | • | • | • | • | oũ>ō | pæwŋ, poũ>, paũ>; ɖæwŋH, dō, taũ>tō; / ʂæwŋ, soũ>, saũ>; kæwŋH, koũ>, kaũ>; kæwŋ, koũ>, kaũ> | |||
| ǝŋ | ǝŋ | oŋ | • | • | • | • | oũ>ō | boŋ, boũ>bō, poũ>hō; toŋX, toũ>, toũ>; toŋ, toũ>, toũ> ; tsoŋ, soũ>sō, soũ>sō, ; soŋ, soũ>, soũ>; khoŋX, koũ>, koũ> | |||
| wǝŋ | uǝŋ | woŋ | • | kwoŋ, kō, kō; ɣwoŋ, gu, kō | |||||||
| wɑŋ | uɑŋ | waŋ | • | • | waũ>ō | kwaŋ, kwaũ>, kwaũ>;, / ɣwaŋ, waũ>, kwaũ>; ʔwaŋ, ō, ō | |||||
| wæŋ | uɐŋ | wæŋ | • | kwæŋ, kō, kō; /, ɣwæŋ(H), waũ>, kwaũ>kō | |||||||
| wɛŋ | uɛŋ | wɛŋ | • | ɣwɛŋ, waũ>ō, kwaũ>kō | |||||||
| i̯aŋ | iaŋ | jaŋ | • | • | • | • | • | aũ>ō (P, K, some S) yaũ>yō (T, S, Ø) | aũ>ō (P, some S) yaũ>yō | mjaŋ, maũ>, baũ>;, mjaŋH, maũ>, baũ>; phjaŋH, paũ>, paũ> ɖjaŋX, dyaũ>, tyaũ>tyō; ʈjaŋ,, ; dʑjaŋH/X, zyaũ>, syaũ>; dʑjaŋ(H), zyaũ>zyō, syaũ>; ɕjaŋ, syaũ>, syaũ> / tʂjaŋ(H), syaũ>, saũ>; ʂjaŋ, syaũ>syō, saũ> ljaŋ, raũ>rō, ryaũ>; zjaŋX, zaũ>, syaũ>; sjaŋ(H), saũ>, syaũ>; ŋjaŋX, gaũ>gō, gyaũ>, ; gjaŋ, gaũ>, kyaũ> ʔjaŋ, /yō, yō; ʔjaŋX/H, yō (unclassified On);,,, yjaŋ, yaũ>, yaũ> | |
| i̯waŋ | iuaŋ | jwaŋ | • | • | waũ>ō | wyaũ>yō (K) waũ>ō (Ø) | xjwaŋH, kwaũ>kō, kwyaũ>; gjwaŋ(H), gō, ɣjwaŋ(H), waũ>, waũ>; ʔjwaŋ, ō, ō | ||||
| i̯ǝŋ | iǝŋ | iŋ | • | • | • | • | • | yoũ>yō oũ>ō (Ø, some K) | yoũ>yō | / piŋ, pyoũ>, pyoũ>; ɖiŋ, dyoũ>zyō, tyoũ>; liŋ, ryoũ>, ryoũ>; ɕiŋ, syoũ>, syoũ>; / yjiŋ, yō, yō xiŋ,, ; kiŋ, kyō, kyō; ʔiŋ, ō, yō | |
| i̯æŋ | iɐŋ | jæŋ | • | • | • | • | yaũ>yō | eĩ>ē | bjæŋ, byaũ>, peĩ>; pjæŋ, pyaũ>, peĩ>; mjæŋH, myaũ>, meĩ>; pjæŋX, pyaũ>hyō, peĩ>; mjæŋ, myaũ>, meĩ> ʂjæŋ/ʂæŋ, syaũ>, seĩ>; kjæŋ, kyaũ>, keĩ>; gjæŋH, gyaũ>gyō, keĩ>, (kyaũ>); ŋjæŋ(H), gyō, ; khjæŋ, kyō, kē; ʔjæŋ, yō, | ||
| i̯ɛŋ | iɛŋ | jeŋ | • | • | • | ʈjeŋ, tyō, ; ljeŋ(H), ryaũ>ryō, reĩ>; tɕjeŋH, syaũ>, seĩ>;, sjeŋH, syaũ>, seĩ>; sjeŋX, syaũ>, seĩ>; yjeŋ, yō, ē | |||||
| i̯ɛŋ | jɛŋ | jieŋ | • | • | • | pjieŋ, pyaũ>hyō, pei>hē; mjieŋ, myaũ>, meĩ>; / kjieŋH, kyō, kē; ʔjieŋ, yō, ē | |||||
| ieŋ | eŋ | eŋ | • | • | • | • | meŋ, myaũ>, meĩ>; teŋ, tyaũ>, teĩ>; deŋH, dyaũ>, teĩ>; / leŋ, ryaũ>, reĩ>; neŋ, nyaũ>nyō, neĩ> / keŋ(H), kyaũ>, keĩ>; ɣeŋ, gyaũ>, keĩ> | ||||
| i̯wæŋ | iuɐŋ | jwæŋ | • | • | wyaũ>yō | weĩ>ē | xjwæŋ, kwyaũ>kyaũ>, kweĩ>keĩ>; ɣjwæŋ, wyaũ>yaũ>yō, weĩ>eĩ> | ||||
| i̯wɛŋ | iuɛŋ | jweŋ | • | / yjweŋ, yō, | |||||||
| i̯wɛŋ | juɛŋ | jwieŋ | • | • | , khjwieŋ, kyō, ; gjwieŋ, gyō, kē; ʔjwieŋ, yō, ē | ||||||
| iweŋ | ueŋ | weŋ | • | ~ | kweŋ, kyō, kē; ɣweŋX, gyō, kē | ||||||
| i̯wǝŋ | iuǝŋ | wiŋ | (no example in GSR) | ||||||||
| uŋ | uŋ | uwŋ | • | • | • | • | • | u uũ>ū (T) | oũ>ō | muwŋ, mu, bō, (mō); luwŋH, ru, ; suwŋH, su, ; xuwŋH, ku, kō;, kuwŋ,, koũ>; ɣuwŋ, gu, ; / ʔuwŋH, u, ō tuwŋ, tū, ; thuwŋ, tuũ>, toũ>tō; duwŋ, duũ>zū, toũ>tō (dou>) | |
| uoŋ | oŋ | owŋ | • | • | o oũ>ō (T) | towŋ, toũ>, toũ>; thowŋH,, ; nowŋ, no/, dō tsowŋ, so, soũ>; sowŋ, so, sō | |||||
| iuŋ | iuŋ | juwŋ | • | • | • | • | • | u, uũ>ū yuũ>yū (T) yu (some Ø) | (y)oũ>(y)ō (P) yuũ>yū | pjuwŋ(H), /, hō; bjuwŋ, bu/bū/byō, hō/hyō, (hū) ʈjuwŋ, tyuũ>, tyuũ>; ɖjuwŋ, dyuũ>zyū, tyuũ> sjuwŋ, sū, syū; kjuwŋ, ku/kū, kyuũ>; kjuwŋ,, kyuũ>; ɣjuwŋ, u, yū; ɣjuwŋ, u/yu, ; yjuwŋ, yu, | |
| i̯woŋ | ioŋ | jowŋ | • | • | • | • | • | u, uũ>ū yuũ>yū (T) yo (some Ø) | oũ>ō (P) yoũ>yō | pjowŋ(H),, ; phjowŋ, hu/hū, hō ɖjowŋ(X), dyuũ>, tyoũ>; / ljowŋ, ryuũ>, ryoũ>ryō zjowŋH, zu, syoũ>syō; khjowŋX, ku, kyoũ>; kjowŋX, ku, kyoũ>; xjowŋ, ku/kū, kyō;,, yjowŋX, yu/yuũ>, yoũ>; yjowŋH, yū, ʔjowŋ, yo, yō | |
MC coda /p/ was borrowed as Japanese /pu/ (likely pronounced as [βu] after a vowel at the time of borrowing). Note that these original readings are identical to the readings for MC /m/-final rimes, but with ふ in place of ん. The phoneme /p/ eventually lenited to /h/ word-initially, but was lost between vowels (except Vpa > Vwa). The result was that all /pu/-final readings developed /Vu/ sequences, which later monophthongized. This same change is seen in native vocabulary, as in OJ ke1pu > ModJ kyō 'today'. As a result of this development, all characters with the MC coda /p/ have Go and Kan readings ending in ō, yō or yū in modern Japanese.
Originally, borrowed coda /p/ functioned just like coda /t, k/ (see below) in that the "epenthetic" vowel /u/ did not appear before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, resulting in readings with the obstruent special mora /Q/ in place of /pu/. This phenomenon can still be seen in a number of Japanese words, for example Japanese: 十 /zipu/ > /zyū/ 'ten' vs. Japanese: 十歳 /ziQ.sai/ [dʑissai] 'ten years old' (now usually /zyuQ.sai/ [dʑɯssai]). For Japanese: 拉 (MC lop), the expected Kan reading /rapu > rō/ is not found in Sino-Japanese vocabulary, but only /raQ/ as in Japanese: 拉致 /raQ.ti/ [ɾattɕi] 'abduction' (shortened in most words to /ra/). However, for many characters, the vowel-final readings have been extended to all environments. In some cases, the reading with /Q/ led to the analogical creation of a /tu/-final reading. Notably, for Japanese: 立 (MC lip) the Kan'yō-on reading /ritu/ (from regular /riQ/) is overwhelmingly common in Sino-Japanese vocabulary.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) |
| ɑp | ɑp | ap | • | • | apu>ō | lap, rapu>rō, rapu>rō; dap, dō, tō; ɣap, gapu>gō, kapu>kō; khap, kō, kō | ||||
| ɑ̌p | ɒp | op | • | • | • | ~ | opu>ō | apu>ō | top, topu>, tapu>; lop, rō, rō, (ratu/); nop, nopu>nō, dapu>dō; / dzop, zopu>, sapu>sō, (zapu>,); ɣop, gopu>, kapu>kō, (/) | |
| i̯wæp | iuɐp | jop | • | bjop, bopu>, papu>hō; pjop, popu>, papu>, (/) | ||||||
| ə̆p | ɐp | ɛp | • | • | epu>yō | / tʂhɛp, sepu>syō, sapu>; kɛp, kepu>kyō, kapu>kō | ||||
| ap | ap | æp | ~ | • | • | ʂæp, syō, sō (unclassified On); kæp, kepu>kyō, kapu>, ; ʔæp, epu>yō, apu> | ||||
| i̯ɛp | iɛp | jep | • | • | ~ | • | epu>yō | / ljep, repu>ryō, repu>ryō; ɳjep, nepu>nyō, depu>zyō; tshjep, sepu>syō, sepu>syō; yjep, epu>, epu> | ||
| i̯ɛp | jɛp | jiep | • | ʔjiep, epu>yō, epu>yō | ||||||
| iep | ep | ep | • | • | • | thep, tepu>tyō, tepu>tyō; tsep, sepu>syō, sepu>syō; kep, kepu>kyō, kepu>kyō | ||||
| i̯æp | iɐp | jæp | • | opu>ō | epu>yō | ŋjæp, gopu>, gepu>; xjæp, kō, | ||||
| i̯ǝp | iǝp | ip | • | • | • | • | ipu>yū opu>ō (K, Ø) | ipu>yū | ɖip, dipu>zyū, tipu>tyū; zip, zipu>zyū, sipu>; lip, ripu>, ripu>, kip, kopu>kō, kipu>; ʔip, opu>ō, ipu>yū / apu>ō | |
| i̯ǝp | jǝp | jip | • | • | ipu>yū | , dʑjip, zipu>, sipu>, ; tɕjip, sipu>, sipu>, ; ɲjip, nipu>, zipu>zyū, (ni'); ʔjip, ipu>yū, ipu>yū | ||||
The MC coda /t/ was borrowed as Japanese /t/. Characters ending in this consonant were at first consistently pronounced with no epenthetic vowel, with the kana つ serving double duty to represent /t/ and /tu/. Note that these readings are identical to the readings for MC /n/-final rimes, but with つ/ち in place of ん. Later, an epenthetic vowel /u/ or /i/ was inserted after the consonant in most environments. Kan-on readings use /tu/ exclusively, while the earlier Go'on readings use both /ti/ and /tu/ unpredictably. For example, MC Japanese: 跋 bat is adapted as Go /batu/, while the homophonous MC Japanese: 犮 bat is listed in dictionaries as Go /bati/ (though it is not actually used in existing Japanese words). Often Go readings with /ti/ and /tu/ are listed for the same character, though in practice those with /tu/ are much more common. For example, Japanese: 滅 has the Go readings /meti/ and /metu/, but only /metu/ is recognized as the jōyō reading, and this is the only Go reading found in existing Japanese words. In fact only nine characters have jōyō readings with /(C)Vti/, though these include the common characters Japanese: 一 /iti/ 'one', Japanese: 七 /siti/ 'seven', Japanese: 八 /hati/ 'eight', and Japanese: 日 /niti/ 'day'. Before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, the epenthetic vowel does not appear, and the /t/ functions as the obstruent special mora /Q/, forming a geminate with the following obstruent. For example, Japanese: 日 /niti/ 'day' appears as /niQ/ in the word Japanese: 日記 /niQ.ki/ [nikki] 'diary'.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) | |
| ɑt | ɑt | at | • | • | ~ | • | • | ati/atu | atu | mat,, ; mat, mati/matu, batu; bat, batu, hatu; bat, bati, hatu; tat, tati, tatu; kat, kati, ; ʔat, ati, atu | |
| at | at | æt | • | • | • | eti/etu, (ati) | atu | ʈæt, teti, tatu; / tʂhæt, seti,, ; ɣæt, geti, | |||
| ə̆t | ɛt | ɛt | • | • | • | • | pɛt,, hatu; tʂɛt, setu, ; tʂhɛt, seti, ; khɛt, keti, katu; ʔɛt, eti, atu | ||||
| i̯ɛt | iɛt | jet | • | • | • | • | eti/etu | etu | bjet, beti, hetu, ; ʈhjet, teti, ; ljet, reti, ; sjet, seti, setu; ŋjet, geti, getu; kjet, keti, ketu | ||
| i̯ɛt | jɛt | jiet | • | mjiet, meti/, betu; pjiet, heti, hetu | |||||||
| iet | et | et | • | • | • | • | • | met, meti, ; det, deti, tetu; set, seti, setu; ket, keti, ; ŋet, geti, getu; ʔet, eti, etu | |||
| uɑt | uɑt | wat | • | • | • | • | ati/atu wati>ati (K) wati (Ø) | atu watu>atu (K) watu (Ø) | dwat,, tatu; tshwat, sati, , kwat, kwati>kati, kwatu>; ɣwat, gwati>gati, kwatu>katu ʔwat, wati, watu | ||
| wat | uat | wæt | • | • | • | ~ | eti weti>eti (K, Ø) | atu watu>atu (K) watu (Ø) | ʈwæt, teti, tatu; ʂwæt, seti, kwæt, keti, katu; ɣwæt, geti, ʔwæt, watu (unclassified On) | ||
| wə̆t | uɛt | wɛt | ~ | • | ~ | ɣwɛt, geti, ; ɣwɛt, gweti>geti, kwatu>katu; tʂwɛt, seti/satu (unclassified On) | |||||
| i̯æt | iɐt | jot | • | • | • | oti/otu | atu etu (K, Ø) | / pjot, hoti/, ; bjot, boti, hatu ; mjot, moti, batu, (betu) xjot, koti, ketu; ʔjot, oti, | |||
| i̯wɛt | iuɛt | jwet | • | • | ~ | eti/etu weti>eti (K) | etu wetu>etu (K, Ø) | ʈjwet, teti, tetu; ljwet, reti, retu; dzjwet, zeti/, setu ʔjwot/ʔjwet, woti>oti, wetu>etu; /, / yjwet, eti, | |||
| i̯wɛt | juɛt | jwiet | • | xjwiet, keti, ketu; / khwet/khjwiet, kweti>keti, kwetu> | |||||||
| iwet | uet | wet | • | ~ | kwet/xwet, kweti>keti, kwetu>; ɣwet, gweti>getu, kwetu> | ||||||
| ǝt | ǝt | ot | • | oti/otu | otu | ɣot, goti, kotu (only example in GSR) | |||||
| wǝt | uǝt | wot | • | • | • | • | mwot, motu, ; dwot, doti, ; nwot, noti, dotu; tshwot, soti, ; kwot, koti, | ||||
| i̯wæt | iuɐt | jwot | • | • | oti, (watu>atu) woti>oti (Ø) | wetu>etu | ŋjwot, goti/gwatu>, gwetu>; ɣjwot, woti>oti, wetu>etu | ||||
| i̯ɛt | iɛt | it | • | • | • | • | • | iti oti/otu (K, Ø) | itu | bit, biti, hitu; ɖit, diti>ziti, ; lit, riti, ; tshit,, situ; yjit, iti, itu git, goti, kitu; ʔit, oti/, itu | |
| i̯ēt | iēt | it | (same as above in Baxter's transcription) | ||||||||
| i̯ēt | jēt | jit | • | • | • | • | iti/itu | itu | pjit, hiti, ; mjit, miti/, bitu; ɕjit, siti, ; tɕjit,, ; ɲjit,, ; kjit,, ; ʔjit,, ; yjit, iti, | ||
| i̯wēt | iuēt | wit | • | • | ~ | iti (after /r/) yuti/yutu (T, S) witi>iti (K, Ø) | itu (after /r/) yutu (T, S) witu>itu (K, Ø) | , lwit,, swit, syuti, syutu; ʈhwit, tyuti, tyutu | |||
| i̯uēt | iuēt | wit | (same as above in Baxter's transcription) | ||||||||
| i̯uēt | juēt | jwit | • | • | • | tɕhjwit, syuti, ; ʑjwit, zyuti/, syutu kjwit, kiti, kitu;, yjwit, iti, itu | |||||
| i̯ǝt | iǝt | jɨt | • | oti | itu | khjɨt, koti, kitu, (kotu); xjɨt, koti, kitu | |||||
| i̯uǝt | iuǝt | jut | • | • | • | oti/otu (P) uti | utu | ,, pjut, hoti, hutu; mjut, moti/, khjut, kuti, ; ʔjut, uti, | |||
MC coda /k/ was borrowed as Japanese /k/ with a following epenthetic /i/ (after /e/) or /u/ (after /a, o, u/). After /i/, the epenthetic vowel (/iki/ vs. /iku/) depends on the original Middle Chinese vowel. The readings for MC /k/-final rimes are very similar to the original readings for MC /ŋ/-final rimes with く/き in place of nasalized う/い, but in this case there are some differences. Just like with coda /t/, the epenthetic vowel is absent before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, and the /k/ functions as the obstruent special mora /Q/. For example, Japanese: 学 /gaku/ 'study' appears as /gaQ/ in the word Japanese: 学校 /gaQ.kō/ [gakkō] 'school'.
| MC rime transcription | Occurs after | Japanese On readings | Examples | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karlgr. | Li | Baxter | P | T | S | K | Ø | Go | Kan | Middle Chinese, Go-on, Kan-on, (Kan'yō) | |
| ɑk | ɑk | ak | • | • | • | • | • | aku | pak,, ; mak,, ; lak, raku, raku; sak,, ; tsak,, ; kak,, ; / ʔak,, | ||
| æk | ɐk | æk | • | • | ~ | • | • | yaku | aku | pæk,, haku; bæk,, ; / phæk, hyaku, haku; ʈæk, tyaku, taku; tʂæk, syaku, saku; khæk,, ; / ʔæk, yaku, aku | |
| ɛk | ɛk | ɛk | • | ~ | • | • | • | mɛk,, baku; / tʂhɛk, syaku,, ; kɛk, kyaku, kaku; ʔɛk, yaku, aku | |||
| ɔk | ɔk | æwk | • | • | • | • | • | aku | mæwk, maku, baku; ɖæwk, daku, taku, (teki); ʈæwk,, ; ʂæwk, saku, saku; kæwk,, ; / ɣæwk,, kaku; ʔæwk,, | ||
| ǝk | ǝk | ok | • | • | • | • | oku | pok,, ; mok, moku, ; tok,, ; sok,, ; tsok,, ; khok,, | |||
| wǝk | uǝk | wok | • | ~ | oku waku (Ø)? | / kwok,, , ɣwok,, koku | |||||
| wɑk | uɑk | wak | • | • | waku>aku (K) waku (Ø) | kwak, kwaku>, kwaku>; ɣwak, waku, ʔwak, waku, waku, (kwaku>kaku) | |||||
| wæk | uɐk | wæk | ~ | ~ | waku>aku? | xwæk/xwek, kaku, kyaku; kwæk, kyaku/kaku (unclassified On) | |||||
| wɛk | uɛk | wɛk | • | ~ | waku>aku, (oku?) waku (Ø) | waku>aku, (wyaku>yaku?) | kwɛk, koku, kwaku>kaku; kwɛk, kwaku>kaku, kwyaku>kyaku , / ɣwɛk, waku, kwaku> | ||||
| i̯ak | iak | jak | • | • | • | • | • | aku yaku (T, Ø) | aku (P) yaku | bjak,, haku ɖjak, dyaku>zyaku, tyaku; ɲjak,, ljak, raku, ryaku; tshjak, saku, syaku; khjak, kaku, ʔjak,, ;, yjak,, | |
| i̯wak | iuak | jwak | • | ~ | waku>aku | wyaku>yaku waku (Ø) | kjwak, kwaku>kaku, kwyaku>kyaku; ʔjwak/ʔjwæk, waku (unclassified On) | ||||
| i̯ǝk | iǝk | ik | • | • | • | • | • | iki yoku (after /n/)? oku (K, Ø, some S) | yoku | pik, hiki, hyoku; ɖik, diki>, ; lik,, ; / tsik,, syoku; ʂik,, ; tɕik,, ; ɕik,, syoku; yjik, iki, ɳik, nyoku, dyoku>zyoku gik,, ; khik, koku, kyoku; kik, koku, kyoku; ʔik, oku, | |
| i̯æk | iɐk | jæk | • | ~ | • | yaku | eki | pjæk, hyaku, heki; ʈhjæk, tyaku (unclassified On); ŋjæk,, geki; khjæk, kyaku, keki | |||
| i̯ɛk | iɛk | jek | • | • | • | ɖjek, zyaku, teki; zjek, zyaku, ; sjek,, ; tshjek/tɕhjek,, ; /, / yjek,, | |||||
| i̯ɛk | jɛk | jiek | • | • | pjiek, hyaku, ; ʔjiek,, | ||||||
| iek | ek | ek | • | • | • | • | mek, myaku, beki; tek,, teki; sek, syaku, seki; ŋek, gyaku, geki | ||||
| i̯wæk | iuɐk | jwæk | wyaku>yaku | weki>eki | (no example in GSR) | ||||||
| i̯wɛk | iuɛk | jwek | • | yjwek,, | |||||||
| i̯wɛk | juɛk | jwiek | (no example in GSR) | ||||||||
| iwek | uek | wek | • | / kwek, kyaku, kweki>keki; khwek, kyaku, keki | |||||||
| i̯wǝk | iuǝk | wik | • | • | oku wiki>iki (Ø) | (wyoku)>yoku | xwik, koku, kwyoku>kyoku ɣwik, wiki>, yoku | ||||
| uk | uk | uwk | • | • | • | • | • | oku woku>oku (Ø) | , muwk,, ; puwk, hoku, hoku; /, / duwk,, ; thuwk, toku, toku; luwk, roku, roku; suwk,, ; kuwk,, ʔuwk, woku>, woku> | ||
| uok | ok | owk | ~ | • | ~ | • | • | bowk/buwk,, hoku; dowk,, toku; kowk,, ; ʔowk, oku, | |||
| iuk | iuk | juwk | • | • | • | • | • | uku, oku iku (T) wiku>iku (K, Ø) | uku, oku (P) iku yuku (S) wiku>iku (K, Ø) | , mjuwk,, ; pjuwk,, ; bjuwk, buku, ʈjuwk,, ; ɳjuwk, niku, diku>ziku; ɲjuwk,, ziku;, ljuwk,, , sjuwk, suku, ;,, / ʂjuwk, suku, ; tshjuwk, suku, syuku kjuwk,, ; ɣjuwk, wiku>iku, wiku>iku; ʔjuwk, wiku>iku, wiku>iku; yjuwk,, | |
| i̯wok | iok | jowk | • | • | • | • | oku | yoku | / ljowk,, ; tshjowk, soku, syoku; xjowk, koku, kyoku;, ŋjowk,, ;,, yjowk,, | ||
All MC roots were a single syllable, and due to the restrictions on possible MC syllable shapes, a limited set of readings (on'yomi) are possible for borrowed Sino-Japanese roots. Furthermore, due in large part to the many distinct MC sounds which were merged when borrowed into Japanese, some readings are extremely common across different kanji, while others are very rare. The below table gives the number of kanji with each possible jōyō on'yomi (not distinguishing between Go, Kan, Tō, and Kan'yō, and not including readings considered restricted or rare). A zero represents a reading which is attested in Sino-Japanese vocabulary, but uses a non-jōyō reading. Readings which are listed in dictionaries but which are merely hypothesized and do not appear in attested Japanese words are not considered.
| Number of jōyō kanji with each possible jōyō on'yomi (Go, Kan, Tō, Kan'yō) | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | on'yomi example word | |||||||||
| i 医 i | 25 | e 恵 e | 3 | a 唖 a | 1 | o 汚職 o.syoku | 2 | u 有 u | 5 | ya 冶 ya | 3 | yo 預金 yo.kin | 5 | yu 柚 yu | 7 | |
| hi 比 hi | 21 | ha 派 -ha | 5 | ho 歩 -ho | 6 | hu 麩 hu | 22 | |||||||||
| ti 地 ti | 12 | ta 他 ta | 4 | to 都 to | 12 | tu 都合 tu.gō | 1 | tya 茶屋 tya.ya | 1 | tyo 著 tyo | 2 | |||||
| si 詩 si | 50 | se 世界 se.kai | 2 | sa 差 sa | 11 | so 祖 so | 13 | su 素 su | 3 | sya 舎 sya | 13 | syo 書 syo | 9 | syu 主 syu | 13 | |
| ki 気 ki | 39 | ke 卦 ke | 3 | ka 火 ka | 32 | ko 戸 ko | 21 | ku 口 ku | 7 | kyo 居 kyo | 9 | |||||
| bi 美 bi | 6 | ba 罵声 ba.sē | 3 | bo 墓 bo | 7 | bu 武 bu | 8 | |||||||||
| da 打開 da.kai | 7 | do 土 do | 5 | |||||||||||||
| zi 字 zi | 20 | ze 是 ze | 1 | za 座 -za | 2 | zu 図 zu | 2 | zya 蛇 zya | 2 | zyo 女 zyo | 7 | zyu 綬 zyu | 7 | |||
| gi 義 gi | 11 | ge 下 ge | 3 | ga 画 ga | 8 | go 語 go | 12 | gu 具 gu | 3 | gyo 御 gyo | 3 | |||||
| mi 味 mi | 3 | ma 魔法 ma.hō | 4 | mo 茂林 mo.rin | 2 | mu 無 mu | 6 | |||||||||
| ni 二 ni | 3 | na 那辺 na.hen | 2 | nyo 女人 nyo.nin | 2 | |||||||||||
| ri 理 ri | 9 | ra 裸裎 ra.tē | 3 | ro 炉 ro | 5 | ru 流 ru | 1 | ryo 旅 ryo | 4 | |||||||
| wa 話 -wa | 2 | |||||||||||||||
| ē 栄 ē | 10 | ō 王 ō | 15 | ai 愛 ai | 4 | yō 用 yō | 22 | yū 勇 yū | 17 | yui 遺 yui | 1 | |||||
| hē 平 hē | 13 | hō 方 hō | 24 | hū 風 hū | 2 | hai 肺 hai | 10 | hyō 票 hyō | 8 | |||||||
| tē 体 tē | 24 | tō 灯 tō | 38 | tū 通 tū | 2 | tai 態 tai | 22 | tui 追加 tui.ka | 4 | tyō 丁 tyō | 27 | tyū 中 tyū | 14 | |||
| sē 聖 sē | 33 | sō 草 sō | 38 | sū 数 sū | 3 | sai 犀 sai | 24 | sui 水 sui | 12 | syō 小 syō | 57 | syū 週 syū | 25 | |||
| kē 計 kē | 31 | kō 幸 kō | 64 | kū 空 kū | 1 | kai 回 kai | 24 | kyō 京 kyō | 28 | kyū 九 kyū | 22 | |||||
| bē 米国 bē.koku | 1 | bō 坊 bō | 23 | bai 貝 bai | 8 | byō 秒 byō | 6 | byū 謬説 byū.setu | 0 | |||||||
| dē 泥土 dē.do | 1 | dō 堂 dō | 11 | dai 代 dai | 5 | |||||||||||
| zē 税 zē | 1 | zō 象 zō | 9 | zai 材 zai | 5 | zui 髄 zui | 2 | zyō 城 zyō | 21 | zyū 十 zyū | 12 | |||||
| gē 芸 gē | 3 | gō 業 gō | 9 | gū 偶 gū | 4 | gai 害 gai | 11 | gyō 行 gyō | 6 | gyū 牛 gyū | 1 | |||||
| mē 名 mē | 8 | mō 毛 mō | 7 | mai 枚 -mai | 6 | myō 妙 myō | 5 | |||||||||
| nē 寧日 nē.zitu | 1 | nō 農 nō | 6 | nai 内 nai | 1 | nyō 尿 nyō | 1 | nyū 入力 nyū.ryoku | 3 | |||||||
| rē 令 rē | 12 | rō 蝋 rō | 10 | rai 雷 rai | 4 | rui 類 rui | 4 | ryō 両 ryō | 16 | ryū 竜 ryū | 7 | |||||
| wai 歪度 wai.do | 1 | |||||||||||||||
| in 引 in | 13 | en 円 en | 17 | an 暗 an | 3 | on 音 on | 5 | un 運 un | 2 | |||||||
| hin 品 hin | 5 | hen 変 hen | 7 | han 半 han | 24 | hon 本 hon | 3 | hun 分 hun | 8 | |||||||
| tin 珍 tin | 6 | ten 天 ten | 9 | tan 短 tan | 14 | ton 遁辞 ton.zi | 3 | |||||||||
| sin 新 sin | 29 | sen 戦 sen | 30 | san 三 san | 12 | son 損 son | 6 | sun 寸 sun | 1 | syun 旬 syun | 3 | |||||
| kin 金 kin | 16 | ken 剣 ken | 32 | kan 漢 kan | 46 | kon 魂 kon | 13 | kun 訓 kun | 4 | |||||||
| bin 敏 bin | 4 | ben 弁 ben | 3 | ban 晩 ban | 8 | bon 盆 bon | 2 | bun 文 bun | 3 | |||||||
| den 伝 den | 4 | dan 男 dan | 9 | don 鈍 don | 3 | |||||||||||
| zin 仁 zin | 11 | zen 全 zen | 8 | zan 残 zan | 4 | zon 存意 zon.i | 1 | zun 寸胴 zun.dō | 0 | zyun 順 zyun | 11 | |||||
| gin 銀 gin | 2 | gen 言 gen | 12 | gan 丸 gan | 10 | gon 勤求 gon.gu | 1 | gun 軍 gun | 3 | |||||||
| min 眠 min | 2 | men 面 men | 4 | man 万 man | 4 | mon 門 mon | 5 | |||||||||
| nin 人 nin | 5 | nen 年 nen | 6 | nan 南 nan | 4 | |||||||||||
| rin 林 -rin | 7 | ren 連 ren | 5 | ran 乱 ran | 6 | ron 論 ron | 1 | |||||||||
| wan 湾 wan | 2 | |||||||||||||||
| itu 逸 itu | 1 | etu 悦 etu | 4 | atu 圧力 atu.ryoku | 1 | otu 乙 otu | utu 鬱 utu | 1 | ||||||||
| hitu 筆 hitu | 4 | hetu 丿乀 hetu.hotu | 0 | hatu 発 hatu | 2 | hotu 発願 hotu.gan | 1 | hutu 仏人 hutu.zin | 2 | |||||||
| titu 帙 -titu | 2 | tetu 鉄 tetu | 5 | tatu 達人 tatu.zin | 1 | totu 凸 totu | 2 | |||||||||
| situ 室 situ | 9 | setu 節 setu | 11 | satu 札 satu | 9 | sotu 卒 sotu | 2 | syutu 出 syutu | 1 | |||||||
| kitu 橘 kitu | 3 | ketu 決 ketu | 7 | katu 活 katu | 9 | kotu 骨 kotu | 2 | kutu 窟院 kutu.in | 3 | |||||||
| betu 別 betu | 2 | batu 罰 batu | 5 | botu 没 botu | 2 | butu 仏 butu | 2 | |||||||||
| detu 捏造 detu.zō (rare reading) | 0 | datu 脱 datu- | 2 | |||||||||||||
| zitu 実 zitu | 2 | zetu 舌炎 zetu.en | 2 | zatu 雑 zatu | 1 | zutu 術無し zutu.na.si (rare reading) | 0 | zyutu 述 zyutu | 2 | |||||||
| getu 月 getu | 1 | gatu 歹偏 gatu.hen | 1 | gotu 兀然 gotu.zen (rare) | 0 | |||||||||||
| mitu 密 mitu | 2 | metu 滅亡 metu.bō | 1 | matu 末 matu | 2 | motu 没薬 motu.yaku | 1 | |||||||||
| netu 熱 netu | 1 | natu 捺印 natu.in | 0 | |||||||||||||
| ritu 律 ritu | 4 | retu 列 retu | 4 | ratu 辣腕 ratu.wan | 1 | |||||||||||
| iti 一 iti | 2 | eti 越後 eti.go | 0 | |||||||||||||
| hati 八 hati | 2 | |||||||||||||||
| (tati) 達 -tati (possibly native) | 0 | |||||||||||||||
| siti 七 siti | 2 | seti 刹那 seti.na | 0 | soti 帥 soti | 0 | |||||||||||
| kiti 吉 kiti | 1 | keti 血縁 keti.en | 0 | kati 褐 kati | 0 | |||||||||||
| beti 別 beti | 0 | bati 罰 bati | 1 | |||||||||||||
| (dati) 達 -dati (possibly native) | 0 | |||||||||||||||
| ziti 実 ziti (rare reading) | 0 | zuti 術無し zuti.na.si (rare reading) | 0 | |||||||||||||
| gati 月 gati | 0 | |||||||||||||||
| miti 蜜 miti (rare reading) | 0 | moti 勿論 moti.ron | 0 | |||||||||||||
| niti 日 niti | 1 | neti 熱 neti (rare reading) | 0 | |||||||||||||
| riti 律 riti | 0 | rati 埒 rati | 0 | |||||||||||||
| iku 育児 iku.zi | 1 | aku 悪 aku | 2 | oku 屋 oku | 4 | yaku 益 yaku | 6 | yoku 欲 yoku | 6 | |||||||
| haku 白 haku | 9 | hoku 北西 hoku.sē | 1 | huku 服 huku | 9 | hyaku 百 hyaku | 1 | |||||||||
| tiku 竹簡 tiku.kan | 5 | taku 宅 taku | 7 | toku 徳 toku | 7 | tyaku 着 tyaku | 2 | tyoku 直 tyoku | 3 | |||||||
| seku 齷齪 aku.seku | 0 | saku 作 saku | 10 | soku 束 soku | 11 | syaku 勺 syaku | 5 | syoku 食 syoku | 10 | syuku 宿 syuku | 6 | |||||
| kiku 菊 kiku | 1 | kaku 角 kaku | 18 | koku 国 koku | 8 | kyaku 客 kyaku | 3 | kyoku 局 kyoku | 3 | |||||||
| baku 獏 baku | 5 | boku 僕 boku | 7 | buku 服 buku (archaic) | 0 | byaku 白毫 byaku.gō | 1 | |||||||||
| daku 濁点 daku.ten | 2 | doku 毒 doku | 3 | |||||||||||||
| ziku 軸 ziku | 1 | zaku 石榴 zaku.ro | 0 | zoku 族 zoku | 5 | zyaku 弱 zyaku | 3 | zyoku 辱 zyoku | 1 | zyuku 塾 zyuku | 2 | |||||
| gaku 学 gaku | 5 | goku 極 goku | 2 | gyaku 逆 gyaku | 2 | gyoku 玉 gyoku | 1 | |||||||||
| maku 幕 | 2 | moku 木 moku | 3 | myaku 脈 myaku | 1 | |||||||||||
| niku 肉 niku | 1 | nyaku 蒟蒻 kon.nyaku | 0 | |||||||||||||
| riku 陸 riku | 1 | raku 陸 raku | 4 | roku 六 roku | 3 | ryaku 略 ryaku | 1 | ryoku 力役 ryoku.eki | 2 | |||||||
| waku 惑 waku | 1 | |||||||||||||||
| iki 域 iki | 1 | eki 役 eki | 6 | |||||||||||||
| hiki 疋 -hiki | 0 | heki 癖 heki | 3 | |||||||||||||
| teki 敵 teki | 6 | |||||||||||||||
| siki 式 siki | 4 | seki 席 seki | 16 | |||||||||||||
| keki 砉然 keki.zen | 0 | |||||||||||||||
| beki 冪 beki | 0 | |||||||||||||||
| deki 溺愛 deki.ai | 1 | |||||||||||||||
| ziki 直 ziki | 1 | |||||||||||||||
| geki 劇 geki | 4 | |||||||||||||||
| riki 力 riki | 1 | reki 鬲 reki | 2 | |||||||||||||
Due to the fact that most MC syllables had a coda, most Japanese on'yomi are bimoraic, containing either two syllables, a long vowel, or the moraic nasal /N/. These last two structures are extremely common in Sino-Japanese roots, but somewhat rare in native Japanese vocabulary. For these and other reasons, the phonological patterns of Sino-Japanese words and native Japanese words are markedly different, and it is very often possible to correctly guess the etymological origin of a word based solely on its shape.
At first glance, the on'yomi of many Sino-Japanese words do not resemble the Modern Standard Chinese pronunciations at all. Firstly, the borrowings occurred in three main waves, with the resulting sounds identified as,, and ; these were at different periods over several centuries, from different stages in Historical Chinese phonology, and thus source pronunciations differ substantially depending on time and place. Beyond this, there are two main reasons for the divergence between Modern Standard Chinese and Modern Standard Japanese pronunciations of cognate terms:
Nonetheless, the correspondences between the two are fairly regular. As a result, Sino-Japanese can be viewed as a (transformed) "snapshot" of an archaic period of the Chinese language, and as a result is very important for comparative linguists as it provides a large amount of evidence for the reconstruction of Middle Chinese.
The following is a rough guide to equivalencies between modern Chinese words and modern Sino-Japanese on'yomi readings.
Unless otherwise noted, in the list below, sounds shown in quotation marks or italics indicate the usage of non-IPA romanization such as Hanyu pinyin for Mandarin Chinese and Hepburn romanization for Japanese. Symbols shown within slashes or square brackets, like pronounced as //ɡ// or pronounced as /[dʒ]/, are IPA transcriptions.
Note:
Initials:
| Place | Phonation | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Voiceless | Voiced | ||||
| Unaspirated | Aspirated | Obstruent | Sonorant | ||
| Labial (bilabial · labiodental) | MC | pronounced as /[p]/ · pronounced as /[f]/ | pronounced as /[pʰ]/ · pronounced as /[fʰ]/ | pronounced as /[b̥]/ · pronounced as /[v̥]/ | pronounced as /[m]/ · pronounced as /[ṽ]/ |
| Pinyin | b · f | p · f | b,p · f | m · w | |
| Wu | p · f | ph · f | b · v | m · v | |
| Go | pronounced as /[p]/ → pronounced as /[ɸ]/ → pronounced as /[h]/ | pronounced as /[b]/ | pronounced as /[m]/ | ||
| Kan | pronounced as /[p]/ → pronounced as /[ɸ]/ → pronounced as /[h]/ | pronounced as /[b]/ (pronounced as /[m]/ when the Tang source had coda pronounced as /[ŋ]/) | |||
| Coronal stop (alveolar · retroflex) | MC | pronounced as /[t]/ · pronounced as /[ʈ]/ | pronounced as /[tʰ]/ · pronounced as /[ʈʰ]/ | pronounced as /[d̥]/ · pronounced as /[ɖ̥]/ | pronounced as /[n]/ · pronounced as /[ɳ]/ |
| Pinyin | d · zh | t · ch | d,t · zh,ch | n · n | |
| Wu | t · c | th · ch | d · j | n, ny · n, ny | |
| Go | pronounced as /[t]/ | pronounced as /[d]/ | pronounced as /[n]/ | ||
| Kan | pronounced as /[t]/ | pronounced as /[d, z]/ (pronounced as /[n]/ when the Tang source had coda pronounced as /[ŋ]/) | |||
| Lateral | MC | pronounced as /[l]/ | |||
| Pinyin | l | ||||
| Wu | l | ||||
| Go | pronounced as /[ɽ]/ | ||||
| Kan | pronounced as /[ɽ]/ | ||||
| Coronal sibilant (alveolar · palatal, retroflex) (affricate / fricative) | MC | pronounced as /[ts]/ · pronounced as /[tɕ, tʂ]/ | pronounced as /[tsʰ]/ · pronounced as /[tɕʰ, tʂʰ]/ | pronounced as /[d̥z̥]/ · pronounced as /[d̥ʑ̊, d̥ʐ̊]/ | |
pronounced as /[s]/ · pronounced as /[ɕ, ʂ]/ | pronounced as /[z̥]/ · pronounced as /[ʑ̊, ʐ̊]/ | ||||
| Pinyin | z,j · zh | c,q · ch | z,j,c,q · zh,ch | ||
| s,x · sh | s,x · sh | ||||
| Wu | ts · c | tsh · ch | dz · dzh | ||
| s · sh | z · zh | ||||
| Go | pronounced as /[s]/ | pronounced as /[z]/ | |||
| Kan | pronounced as /[s]/ | ||||
| Palatal nasal | MC | pronounced as /[ɲ]/ | |||
| Pinyin | r | ||||
| Wu | ny | ||||
| Go | pronounced as /[n]/ | ||||
| Kan | pronounced as /[z]/ | ||||
| Velar stop | MC | pronounced as /[k]/ | pronounced as /[kʰ]/ | pronounced as /[ɡ̊]/ | pronounced as /[ŋ]/ |
| Pinyin | g,j | k,q | g,j,k,q | w, y, ∅ | |
| Wu | k | kh | g | ng, n | |
| Go | pronounced as /[k]/ | pronounced as /[ɡ]/ | |||
| Kan | pronounced as /[k]/ | pronounced as /[ɡ]/ | |||
| Glottal | MC | pronounced as /[ʔ]/ | (null) | ||
| Pinyin | (null),y,w | y,w | |||
| Wu | ∅ | ∅, gh | |||
| Go | (null) or pronounced as /[j]/ or pronounced as /[w]/ | pronounced as /[j]/ or pronounced as /[w]/ | |||
| Kan | (null) or pronounced as /[j]/ or pronounced as /[w]/ | pronounced as /[j]/ or pronounced as /[w]/ | |||
| Velar fricative | MC | pronounced as /[x]/ | pronounced as /[ɣ̊]/ | ||
| Pinyin | h,x | h,x | |||
| Wu | h | gh | |||
| Go | pronounced as /[k]/ | pronounced as /[ɡ]/ or pronounced as /[w]/ | |||
| Kan | pronounced as /[k]/ | pronounced as /[k]/ | |||
Finals:
| MC | Pinyin | Wu | Go | Kan | Tō-on | in some compounds |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as //m// | n | n, ∅ | pronounced as //ɴ// | |||
| pronounced as //n// | n | |||||
| pronounced as //ŋ// | ng | n | [ũ~ĩ] > /u, i/ | pronounced as //ɴ// | ?? same as not in compound ?? | |
| pronounced as //p// | (null) | ʔ | pronounced as //pu// > pronounced as //ɸu// > pronounced as //u// | pronounced as //Q// | ||
| pronounced as //t// | (null) | /ti/ pronounced as /[tɕi]/, /tu/ [tsu] | /tu/ pronounced as /[tsu]/ | ?? | pronounced as //Q// | |
| pronounced as //k// | (null) | after front vowel, pronounced as //ki//; after back vowel, pronounced as //ku// | ?? | pronounced as //Q// | ||
Notes:
| Character | Meaning | Middle Chinese | Wu | Mandarin Pinyin | Cantonese (Yue) | Go-on | Kan-on | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| one | ʔjit | ih | yī | jat1 | ichi < *iti | itsu < *itu | ||
| two | nyijH /ɲij³/ | nyi | èr < */ʐr/ < */ʐi/ | ji2 | ni | ji < *zi | ||
| three | sam | sae | sān | saam1 | san | |||
| four | sijH /sij³/ | sy | sì | sei3 | shi < *si | |||
| five | nguX /ŋu²/ | ng | wǔ | ng5 | go | |||
| six | ljuwk | loh | liù | luk6 | roku | riku | ||
| seven | tshit /tsʰit/ | tshih | qī | cat1 | shichi < *siti | shitsu < *situ | ||
| eight | pɛt | pah | bā | baat3 | hachi < *pati | hatsu < *patu | ||
| nine | kjuwX /kjuw²/ | kieu | jiǔ | gau2 | ku | kyū < *kiu | ||
| ten | dzyip /dʑip/ | dzheh | shí | sap6 | jū < *zipu | shū < *sipu | ||
| north | pok | poh | běi | bak1 | hoku < *poku | |||
| west | sej | si | xī | sai1 | sai | sei | ||
| east | tuwng /tuwŋ/ | ton | dōng | dung1 | tsu < *tu | tō < *tou | ||
| capital | kjæng /kjæŋ/ | kin | jīng | ging1 | kyō < *kyau | kei | ||
| person | nyin /ɲin/ | nyin | rén | jan4 | nin | jin < *zin | ||
| sun | nyit /ɲit/ | nyih | rì | jat6 | nichi < *niti; ni | ?? jitsu < *zitu | ||
| base, origin | pwonX /pwon²/ | pen | běn | bun2 | ?? hon < *pon | |||
| up | dzyangX /dʑaŋ²/, dzyangH /dʑaŋ³/ | dzhaon | shàng | soeng6 | jō < *zyau | shō < *syau | ||
| down | hæX /ɦæ²,ɣæ²/, hæH /ɦæ³,ɣæ³/ | gho | xià | haa5 | ge | ka | ||