Sikhism in the United States explained

Group:	Sikhism in the United States
Pop:	~280,000–500,000 of the total American population (2020 est.)
Langs:	American English • Punjabi
Flag Size:	50px

American Sikhs form the country's sixth-largest religious group.^[1] While the U.S. Census does not ask about religion,^[2] 70,697 Americans (or of the total population) declared Sikh as their ethnicity in the 2020 census.^[3] The U.S. Census Bureau cites the 2008 American Religious Identification Survey's estimate of the adult Sikh American population at 78,000.^[4] The Pew Research Center estimated the Sikh American adult population to be 140,000 and the total population at 200,000 in 2012 while the World Religion Database at Boston University estimated the American Sikh population to be at 280,000 in 2012.^{[4] [5]} Sikh organizations like the Sikh Coalition and American Sikh Congressional Caucus estimate the Sikh American population to be as high as 1,000,000, but do not provide any sources for these figures;^{[6] [7] [5]} 500,000 nevertheless remains the most cited Sikh American population size.^[8] With 1% of Asian Americans being Sikh, and 90.7% of Sikh Americans being Asian American, the American Sikh population can be estimated at around 200,000–300,000 in 2021.^{[9] [10] [11]} The largest Sikh populations in the U.S. are found in California (52%), New York (11%), and Washington (6%).^[12]

Sikhism is a religion, originating from medieval India (predominantly from the Punjab region of modern-day India and Pakistan) which was introduced into the United States during the 19th century. While most American Sikhs are Punjabi, the United States also has a number of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism.^[13] Sikh men are typically identifiable by their unshorn beards and turbans (head coverings), articles of their faith. Following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, and subsequent other terrorism related activities by Islamic groups, Sikhs have often been mistaken as Muslims or Arabs, and have been subject to several hate crimes, including murders.^{[14] [15]} Sikh temples have also been targets of violence due to being mistaken for mosques. A 2012 shooting at a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin garnered national and international attention, with then President Obama ordering flags to be half-staffed at all federal buildings.

History

First immigrants

Sikhs have lived in the United States for more than 130 years. The first Sikh immigrants to the United States started to arrive in the second half of the 19th century, when poor economic conditions in British India drove many Indians to emigrate elsewhere. Most Sikh immigrants to the United States came from the province of Punjab and came to the U.S. to work on agricultural farms in California, travelling via Hong Kong to Angel Island.^[16]

In the years just after 1900, hundreds of Sikhs had arrived to work in the lumber mills of Bellingham, Washington. In 1907, 400–500 white men, predominantly members of the Asiatic Exclusion League, attacked the Sikhs' homes in what is now known as the Bellingham riots. This quickly drove the East Indian immigrants out of the town.^{[17] [18] [19]}

Some Sikhs worked in lumber mills of Oregon or in railroad construction and for some Sikhs it was on a railway line, which allowed other Sikhs who were working as migrant laborers to come into the town on festival days.^[20]

A big effect on Sikh migration to the western states occurred during World War I and World War II, where Sikhs were recruited by the British Indian Army to serve for them. Sikhs fought bravely during these wars and began to live in England after their serving period. Among the Sikhs who already lived in America prior to the wars, many Sikhs joined them, mainly during World Wars I and II. Among those who served in the US military include Bhagat Singh Thind in World War I.

The first Sikh gurdwara established in the U.S. was the Gurdwara Sahib Stockton, in Stockton, California, which was established in 1912 by Wasakha Singh Dadehar and Jawala Singh.^[21]

Discrimination after the September 11 attacks

As a result of the September 11 attacks, some Sikh Americans have become subject to discrimination, often from individuals who mistakenly believe that they are Arab or Muslim.

Balbir Singh Sodhi, a gas station owner, was killed on September 15, 2001, due to being mistaken for a Muslim. In a 2011 report to the United States Senate, the Southern Poverty Law Center reported several assaults and incidents of arson at Sikh temples after September 11. All were labeled as hate crimes that resulted from the perpetrators' misconceptions that their targets were Muslim.^[22] In August 2012, a Sikh temple in Oak Creek, Wisconsin, was the site of a shooting, leading to six Sikh individuals being killed.^[23] On May 7, 2013, an elderly Sikh man was attacked with an iron bar in Fresno, California, in a possible hate crime.^[24] On September 21, 2013, Prabhjot Singh, a Sikh professor was attacked in Harlem, New York, by a group of 20-30 men who branded him as "Osama bin Laden" and Terrorist".^[25]

A 2007 survey of Sikh students by the Sikh Coalition found that three out of four male students interviewed "had been teased or harassed on account of their religious identity."^[26] In 2014, the Sikh Coalition released a national report on the bullying of Sikh children in American schools. The report found that 55.8% of Sikh students surveyed in Indianapolis reported being bullied, while 54.5% of Sikh students surveyed in Fresno, California, reported being bullied.^[27] According to the surveys, Sikh students wearing turbans are twice as likely to be bullied as the average American child.

Converts

In the 1960s, due to increased Indian immigration and rising interest in Indian spirituality in the American counterculture, a number of non-Punjabi Americans began to enter 3HO. Prominent in this trend was Yogi Bhajan, leader of the Sikh-related movement 3HO (Healthy, Happy, Holy Organization), whose Los Angeles temple was the first to introduce non-Punjabi Americans to Sikhism.^[13]

Demography

Generation status

Most American Sikhs are immigrants.

Sikh American generation status (2020)

Generation status	2020^[28]
First generation	163,992
Second generation	100,638
Third generation or more	15,979
Total	280,329

Occupations

Bhagat Singh Thind v. United States

See main article: Sikhism in the United States military. Sikhs have served in the United States military at least as far back as the early 20th century, when one Bhagat Singh Thind, who though not a citizen joined the United States Army and served in World War I. Thind requested citizenship at the end of the war, being granted and revoked twice, before finally being naturalized in 1936.^[29] Far larger numbers of Sikhs served in World War II, and all American wars following.

The ability of observant Sikhs to serve in the American military has, since 1985, been compromised by a discontinuation of exemptions to uniform standards which previously allowed Sikhs to maintain their religiously mandated beards and turbans while in uniform.^[30] As of 2010, a Sikh doctor, Kamaljeet S. Kalsi, and dentist, Tejdeep Singh Rattan, are the only Sikh officers to be permitted to serve in uniform with beard and turban.^[31] In addition, Simranpreet Lamba was permitted to enlist, with exemption to wear his turban and beard, in 2010 due to his knowledge of Punjabi and Hindi.^[32]

Military

In the federal appeals court in Washington, a preliminary injunction allowed two Sikh men to enter the military recruit training wearing a turban as it was considered an article of religion. The military recruits Milaap Singh Chahal and Jaskirat Singh sued the Marine Corps in April 2022 due to violation of the first amendment which allows the freedom of religion. The branch that they were a part of declined full religious exemption.^[33]

Policing

In 2016, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) began to allow turbans, subject to standards compatible with unimpeded performance of duty.^[34] In 2015, Sandeep Dhaliwal became the first Deputy Sheriff in Texas to wear a turban on duty (Harris County Sherriff's Office). He was shot and killed from behind in 2019 while conducting a routine traffic stop on the Copperbrook subdivision in Houston Texas.^[35]

In 2019, the Houston Police Department changed their rules to allow beards and turbans, joining 25 other law enforcement agencies.^[36]

Professionals

Many Sikhs started life in America working in lumber mills, mines, and as farm laborers, with many eventually becoming landowners. Many early Sikh immigrants were restaurant owners. In 1956, Dalip Singh Saund became the first Asian Indian-born person to be elected to the United States House of Representatives.

Today, many Sikhs are well represented in white-collar positions such as lawyers, doctors, engineers, accountants, and businesspeople. They are considered to be a successful ethnic group in line with most of the Indian community. The community has a higher level of education, as over 53% have received a bachelor's degree compared to 40% of the general population. This is also reflected in terms of income as over 75% of the community earns over $50,000 and over two-thirds of the population have incomes over $100,000.^[37]

Elected officials

• Dalip Singh Saund served three terms in the United States House of Representatives between 1957 and 1963. He was the first Asian American and the first person of a non-Abrahamic faith to serve in Congress.
• Preet Didbal was elected to the position of mayor of Yuba City, California in 2017. She is the first Sikh woman to serve as a city mayor in United States history.^[38]
• Balvir Singh was elected to the Burlington County Board of Chosen Freeholders, New Jersey on November 7, 2017. He became the first Asian-American to win a countywide election in Burlington County and the first Sikh-American to win a countywide election in New Jersey.^[39]
• City planner Satyendra Huja was elected mayor of Charlottesville, Virginia in January 2012.^[40]
• Amarjit Singh Buttar was elected in December 2001 to the Vernon, Connecticut Board of Education and won re-election in 2011.^[41]
• Ravinder Bhalla was elected mayor of Hoboken, New Jersey in November 2017. He is also the first Sikh mayor to wear a turban.
• Satwinder Kaur became the first Sikh elected to the City Council of Kent, Washington in November 2017.
• Manka Dhingra of Washington became the first Sikh woman elected to a state legislature in November 2017.^[42]
• Pargat S. Sandhu was elected as mayor of Galt, California on Dec 3, 2019. He became the first Sikh to be elected for City Council and Mayor for the city of Galt.
• In November 2020, California's Sutter County and Stanislaus County became the first two America to elect turbaned Sikh supervisors (Karm Bains and Mani Grewal, respectively).^{[43] [44]}

Geographical distribution

Over half of American Sikhs live in California. Most of California's Sikh population live in NorCal, especially in the Central Valley and the Bay Area. The nation's largest Sikh population is in California's Central Valley, where Punjabi is the third most spoken language after only English and Spanish.^[45] Sikhs can found across the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys, but the largest concentrations can be found in the valley's largest cities (Sacramento in the Sacramento Valley and Stockton, Fresno, and Bakersfield in the San Joaquin Valley), and in smaller communities associated with the farming of almonds, peaches, walnuts, and plums. There are also significant concentrations of Sikh Americans in the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta and in the Bay Area near San Jose, California and Fremont, California.

In the Sacramento Valley, Yuba City and Live Oak have prominent Sikh populations, with the first Sikh arriving in Yuba City in 1906.^[46] In 2020, Yuba City was home to around 10,000 Sikhs (~15% of the city's population), while Live Oak was home to around 700 Sikhs (~8% of the city's population), with most of these being Sikhs. Sutter County, California as a whole is home to around 11,000 Sikhs (~11% of the county population); this makes Sutter County the most proportionally Sikh county in America. Down south in the San Joaquin Valley, Livingston is home to around 2,500 Sikhs (~17% of the city's population); Livingston is the most proportionally Sikh municipality in America.

The New York metropolitan area also has a significant Sikh American presence. Around 19,000 Sikhs live in New York City, with around 18,000 in Queens. The Richmond Hill neighborhood of Queens is often referred to as "Little Punjab" due to its large Punjabi population. In 2020, the stretch of 101st Avenue between 111th and 123rd streets in Richmond Hill was renamed Punjab Avenue (ਪੰਜਾਬ ਐਵੇਨਿਊ) and the stretch of 97th Avenue between Lefferts Boulevard and 117th Street was renamed Gurdwara Street.^{[47] [48]} Outside of the city, the suburbs of Hicksville in Long Island and Carteret in Central Jersey have significant Punjabi populations. In 2020, Carteret was home to around 3,000 Sikhs (~12% of the borough's population) while Hicksville was home to around 2,000 (~5% of the hamlet's population).

Outside of California and the New York metropolitan area, there are significant populations of Punjabi Sikhs in Washington, Indiana, Texas, Florida, Georgia, Virginia, Maryland, Massachusetts and North Carolina. There is also a concentration of non-Punjabi converts to Sikhism in Española, New Mexico.^[49]

States and territories

Sikh Americans by state or territory (2020)

State or territory	Sikh alone		Sikh alone or in any combination		Total Sikh population (DERIVED ESTIMATE)
Alabama	29		41		163
Alaska	3		4		16
Arizona	403		549		2,177
Arkansas	22		46		182
California	25,037		36,975		146,614
Colorado	223		334		1,324
Connecticut	260		359		1,424
Delaware	69		88		349
District of Columbia	7		19		75
Florida	421		595		2,359
Georgia	390		548		2,173
Hawaii	N/A	N/A	0		0
Idaho	8		11		44
Illinois	840		1,283		5,087
Indiana	1,283		1,718		6,812
Iowa	33		61		242
Kansas	99		174		690
Kentucky	25		46		182
Louisiana	56		86		341
Maine	N/A	N/A	23		91
Maryland	734		1,012		4,013
Massachusetts	452		600		2,379
Michigan	981		1,465		5,809
Minnesota	74		115		456
Mississippi	77		116		460
Missouri	75		131		519
Montana	0		4		16
Nebraska	4		7		28
Nevada	147		282		1,118
New Hampshire	14		36		143
New Jersey	2,715		3,888		15,417
New Mexico	18		37		147
New York	5,587		7,943		31,496
North Carolina	206		361		1,431
North Dakota	N/A	N/A	0		0
Ohio	569		887		3,517
Oklahoma	42		48		190
Oregon	204		285		1,130
Pennsylvania	759		1,098		4,354
Puerto Rico	N/A	N/A	0		0
Rhode Island	N/A	N/A	3		12
South Carolina	42		97		385
South Dakota	0		1		4
Tennessee	48		73		289
Texas	1,918		2,718		10,777
Utah	62		92		365
Vermont	3		3		12
Virginia	1,157		1,713		6,792
Washington	3,002		4,367		17,316
West Virginia	6		7		28
Wisconsin	185		356		1,412
Wyoming	N/A	N/A	3		12
United States	48,321		70,697		280,329

Counties

Sikh Americans by county (2020)

		Sikh alone		Sikh alone or in any combination		Total Sikh population (DERIVED ESTIMATE)
Fresno	California	3,603		5,297		21,004
Queens	New York	3,110		4,456		17,669
San Joaquin	California	2,758		4,026		15,964
Sacramento	California	2,595		4,015		15,920
Alameda	California	2,582		3,689		14,628
Santa Clara	California	2,200		3,078		12,205
King	Washington	2,003		2,900		11,499
Sutter	California	1,990		2,812		11,150
Kern	California	1,395		2,207		8,751
Nassau	New York	1,432		2,137		8,474
Los Angeles	California	1,117		1,710		6,781
Stanislaus	California	1,058		1,595		6,325
Middlesex	New Jersey	1,122		1,553		6,158
Contra Costa	California	839		1,304		5,171
Merced	California	699		1,027		4,072
Placer	California	536		859		3,406
Harris	Texas	606		836		3,315
Orange	California	555		781		3,097
Riverside	California	433		671		2,661
San Bernardino	California	409		630		2,498
Collin	Texas	427		618		2,451
Solano	California	452		614		2,435
Fairfax	Virginia	436		571		2,264
Wayne	Michigan	359		558		2,213
Bergen	New Jersey	417		553		2,193
Maricopa	Arizona	393		543		2,153
Johnson	Indiana	403		534		2,117
Loudoun	Virginia	343		524		2,078
Cook	Illinois	328		520		2,062
Snohomish	Washington	313		492		1,951
Total	United States	48,321		70,697		280,329

Places

Sikh Americans by census-designated place (2020)

		Sikh alone		Total Sikh population (DERIVED ESTIMATE)
New York	New York	3,293		19,104
Fresno	California	2,369		13,743
Yuba City	California	1,757		10,193
San Jose	California	1,467		8,511
Bakersfield	California	1,352		7,843
Sacramento	California	966		5,604
Kent	Washington	952		5,523
Union City	California	803		4,659
Fremont	California	799		4,635
Stockton	California	794		4,606
Manteca	California	681		3,951
Elk Grove	California	602		3,492
Carteret	New Jersey	530		3,075
Tracy	California	479		2,779
Los Angeles	California	444		2,576
Livingston	California	417		2,419
Turlock	California	379		2,199
Greenwood	Indiana	370		2,147
Hicksville	New York	363		2,106
Hayward	California	343		1,990
Ceres	California	321		1,862
Clovis	California	310		1,798
Vineyard	California	289		1,677
Antelope	California	286		1,659
Lathrop	California	283		1,642
Indianapolis (balance)	Indiana	264		1,532
Fairfield	California	251		1,456
Roseville	California	233		1,352
Kerman	California	229		1,329
Modesto	California	206		1,195
Santa Clara	California	205		1,189
Auburn	Washington	198		1,149
Milpitas	California	167		969
Mountain House	California	165		957
Newark	California	155		899
Fowler	California	152		882
Phoenix	Arizona	149		864
Dublin	California	148		859
San Diego	California	144		835
Fontana	California	143		830
Renton	Washington	142		824
Rocklin	California	136		789
San Ramon	California	135		783
Selma	California	131		760
Folsom	California	126		731
Live Oak	California	124		719
Jersey City	New Jersey	119		690
Hercules	California	115		667
SeaTac	Washington	115		667
Total	United States	48,321		280,329

Notable Sikh Americans

1900s

• Kartar Kaur Dhillon, political activist and supporter of the Ghadar Party
• Bhagat Singh Thind, first turbaned soldier in United States Army; plaintiff in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind, involving an important legal battle over the rights of Indians to obtain U.S. citizenship
• Dalip Singh Saund, First Asian Pacific American member of Congress and politician serving in the United States House of Representatives for California's 29th district, 1957–1963
• J.J. Singh, Punjabi-American businessman and political activist
• Spoony Singh, Canadian-American Founder of the Hollywood Wax Museum
• Narinder Singh Kapany, Indian-American Physicist and Sikh art Collector

2000s

Academics

• Naunihal Singh, American political scientist and professor of national security affairs.
• Arjun Singh Sethi, Civil rights writer, political rights writer, human rights lawyer, and adjuct professor of law

Activism

• Valarie Kaur, American activist, documentary filmmaker, lawyer, educator, and founder of the Revolutionary Love Project.
• Simran Jeet Singh, American educator, writer, activist and Executive Director for the Aspen Institute’s Religion & Society Program

Business

• Ajay Banga, Indian-American business executive and president of the World Bank Group. (1981-present)
• Gurbaksh Chahal, Internet Entrepreneur (1998-present)
• Sant Singh Chatwal, Indian-American hotelier and businessperson (1975-present)
• Vikram Chatwal, American hotelier and actor (2006-present)

Entertainment

• Hari Dhillon, American actor (1997-present)
• Ryan Hurst, American actor (1997-present)
• Arj Barker, American comedian (1990s-present)
• Snatam Kaur, American singer, songwriter and author (2000-present)
• Parvesh Cheena, American actor (2002-present)
• Waris Ahluwalia, Indian-American actor and tastemaker (2004-present)
• Guru Singh, American actor (2010-present)
• Karan Brar, American actor (2010-present)
• Dhar Mann, American YouTuber and entrepreneur (2011-present)
• Raaginder, American violinist and songwriter (2011-present)
• Raveena Aurora, American singer and songwriter (2012-present)

Law Enforcement

• Sandeep Dhaliwal, First turbaned Sikh man to served on duty as Sheriff's deputy in Harris County, Texas.

Military

• G. B. Singh, Indian-American author and officer in the United States Army

Politics

• Harpreet Singh Sandhu, American politician and community activist from Richmond, California (2007–2008)
• Harmeet Dhillon, American lawyer and Republican Party Official (2008-present)
• Kash Gill, Mayor of Yuba City, California (2009-2010) and (2013-2014)
• Preet Bharara, Indian-born American lawyer and former federal prosecutor who served as the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York (2009-2017)
• Manka Dhingra, American attorney, Democratic politician who is represents the Party 45th legislative district, on Seattle's Eastside in King County (2017-present) and the first Sikh state senator of Washington
• Preet Didbal, Mayor of Yuba City, California (2017-2018)
• Balvir Singh, American teacher and Democratic politician from Burlington Township, New Jersey, serving on the Burlington County Board of County Commissioners (2018-present)
• Gurbir Grewal, American attorney and prosecutor, served the sixty-first attorney general of the State of New Jersey (2018-2021) and serving as the Director of the Division of Enforcement for the Securities and Exchange Commission (2021-present)
• Ravinder Bhalla, American civil rights lawyer, politician, and the 39th mayor of Hoboken, New Jersey (2018-present)
• Daleep Singh, American economic advisor serving as the Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Markets (2016-2017) and United States Deputy National Security Advisor for International Economics (2021-2022)
• Uttam Dhillon, American attorney, serving as the Acting Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Administration (2018-2020)
• Sabrina Singh, American political administrator serving as the Special Assistant to the President and Deputy Press Secretary for Vice President Kamala Harris in the Biden administration (2021-2022) and the Deputy Pentagon Press Secretary in the Department of Defense (2022-present)
• Mani Grewal, Utah, Sikh Activist, served Utah State Boards including Multicultural Commission, Workforce Services and Investment Board, helped Governor draft Sikh Proclamation, celebrated Vaisakhi at the Utah Capitol Building and design a Sikh Float in the 24th July Parade of the Pioneers.

Religious Services

• Thaminder Singh Anand, Indian-American translator of Guru Granth Sahib.
• Harbhajan Singh, Indian-American Sikh, founder of the 3HO Sikh tradition

Further reading

• Atkinson, David C. The burden of white supremacy: Containing Asian migration in the British empire and the United States (U North Carolina Press, 2016).
• Hawley, John Stratton, and Gurinder Singh Mann. Studying the Sikhs: Issues for North America (State University of New York Press, 1993).
• Kurien, Prema. "Shifting US racial and ethnic identities and Sikh American activism." RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 4.5 (2018): 81–98. online
• Mahmood, Cynthia Keppley, and Stacy Brady. The Guru's Gift: An Ethnography Exploring Gender Equality with North American Sikh Women (Mayfield Publishers, 2000).
• Mann, Gurinder Singh et al. Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs in America (Oxford University Press, 2008).
• Sidhu, Dawinder S., and Neha Singh Gohil. Civil Rights in Wartime: The Post-9/11 Sikh Experience (Ashgate, 2009).
• Stabin, Tova. "Sikh Americans." in Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America, edited by Thomas Riggs, (3rd ed., vol. 4, Gale, 2014), pp. 179–192. Online

External links

• Pioneering Punjabis Digital archive at the University of California, Davis
• Sikh Research Institute
• Center for Sikh and Punjab Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara

Notes and References

1. Web site: Why Pew Research Center typically can’t report the views of smaller U.S. religious groups. 2022-11-23. www.pewresearch.org. en-US.
2. Web site: Does the Census Bureau have data for religion?. United States Census Bureau. 18 March 2023.
3. Web site: Asian Indian Was The Largest Asian Alone Population Group in 2020. United States Census Bureau. 23 September 2023.
4. Web site: Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2012 - Section 1: Population - Table 75: Self-Described Religious Identification of Adult Population: 1990, 2001, and 2008 (page 61). United States Census Bureau. 14 April 2023.
5. Web site: How Many U.S. Sikhs?. Pew Research Center. 18 March 2023.
6. Web site: About Sikhs. Sikh Coalition. 14 April 2023.
7. Web site: H. RES. 275 - 118th Congress (2023-2024). United States Congress. 14 April 2023.
8. Web site: Sikhism Reporter's Guide. Sikh Coalition. 23 July 2023.
9. Web site: Asian Americans: A Mosaic of Faiths. Pew Research Center. 14 April 2023.
10. Web site: 2020 National Sikh American Survey: Key Findings. Sikh American Legal Defense and Education Fund. 8 November 2023.
11. Web site: DP05ACS DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSING ESTIMATES. United States Census Bureau. 14 April 2023.
12. Web site: Detailed Races and Ethnicities in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2020 Census. United States Census Bureau. 2023-09-23.
13. Book: Ronald H. Bayor. Multicultural America: An Encyclopedia of the Newest Americans. 6 June 2013. 31 July 2011. ABC-CLIO. 978-0-313-35787-9. 985–.
14. Web site: Crimes against Sikhs continue in US amidst spotlight on race relations. 2020-08-31. cnbctv18.com. 25 June 2020 . en-US.
15. News: Gumbel. Andrew. 2018-09-19. 'The violence is always there': life as a Sikh in Trump's America. en-GB. The Guardian. 2020-08-31. 0261-3077.
16. Passage From India - Asian Indian Immigrants in North America", Joan M. Jensen, Yale University Press, 1988.
17. Englesberg . Paul . The 1907 Bellingham Riot and Anti-Asian Hostilities in the Pacific Northwest . 2015 . The Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership Publications . 2021-01-11.
18. Web site: News Coverage: 1907-2007 - Seattle Civil Rights and Labor History Project . depts.washington.edu . 2021-01-11.
19. News: Johnson . Tim . Dark Century: Observing the Anniversary of Anti-Sikh Riots . Cascadia Weekly . Bellingham, WA . Cascadia Newspaper Company . 2 . 35 . 2007-08-29 . 8, 10–11 . 1931-3292 . 711684947 . 2021-01-11 . 2021-03-01 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210301065840/http://www.cascadiaweekly.com/pdfs/issues/200735.pdf#page=8 . dead .
20. Web site: Sikhism in North America . kabira.freeservers.com . https://web.archive.org/web/20130416045004/http://kabira.freeservers.com:80/sikhsinnorthamerica.html . 2013-04-16 . dead.
21. http://www.stocktongurdwarasahib.com/ Stockton Gurdwara, America, "Stockton California"
22. Web site: Anti-Muslim Incidents Since Sept. 11, 2001. Southern Poverty Law Center. January 12, 2012. March 29, 2011.
23. News: Gunman's tattoos lead officials to deem Sikh shooting terrorism. Matt Pearce . Brian Bennett . . 5 August 2012 . 5 August 2012.
24. News: Fresno police: Sikh beating a possible hate crime. SF Gate. . 7 May 2013 . 8 May 2013.
25. Web site: Indian Professor attacked in Columbia after being called Osama. 23 September 2013.
26. Book: Sidhu, Darwinder S. . Civil Rights in Wartime: The Post-9/11 Sikh Experience . Neha Singh Gohil . 2009 . Ashgate Publishing . 978-0-7546-7553-2 . 72.
27. News: Report: Fresno County Sikh students say they're bullied at school. Fresno Bee. March 13, 2014. Juan Orozco. Carmen George.
28. News: 2020 National Sikh American Survey: Key Findings. 23 October 2020 . 29 July 2024.
29. Dawinder S. Sidhu, Neha Singh Gohil. Civil rights in wartime: the post-9/11 Sikh experience. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2009., 9780754675532. Pg 137
30. News: Beard Ban Deters Chabad Rabbis From Becoming Chaplains in Army . 27 August 2005 . 25 October 2009.
31. Web site: 1st Sikh in Decades Graduates Army Officer School, Page 1. Michelle Roberts. 2010-03-22. ABC News.
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