Sikh Confederacy Explained
The Sikh Confederacy was a confederation of twelve sovereign states (each known as a Misl, derived from the Arabic word مِثْل meaning 'equal'; sometimes spelt as Misal)[2] [3] [4] [5] which rose during the 18th century in the Punjab region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent and is cited as one of the causes of the weakening of the Mughal Empire prior to Nader Shah's invasion of India (1738–1740).
History
In order to withstand the persecution of Shah Jahan and other Mughal emperors, several of the later Sikh Gurus established military forces and fought the Mughal Empire and Simla Hills' Kings[6] in the early and middle Mughal-Sikh Wars and the Hill States–Sikh wars. Banda Singh Bahadur continued Sikh resistance to the Mughal Empire until his defeat at the Battle of Gurdas Nangal.
For several years Sikhs found refuge in the forests and the Himalayan foothills until they organized themselves into guerilla bands known as jathas.
The basis of the Dal Khalsa army was established in 1733–1735 based upon the numerous pre-existing Jatha militia groups and had two main formations: the Taruna Dal (Youth Brigade) and the Budha Dal (Elder Brigade).
On the annual Diwali meeting of the Sarbat Khalsa in Amritsar in 1748, a Gurmata was passed where the Jathas were reorganized into a new grouping called misls, with 11 Misls forming out of the various pre-existing Jathas and a unified army known as the Dal Khalsa Ji.[7] Ultimate command over the Misls was bestowed to Jassa Singh Ahluwalia.
The misls formed a commonwealth that was described by Swiss adventurer Antoine Polier as a natural "aristocratic republic".[8] Although the misls were unequal in strength, and each misl attempted to expand its territory and access to resources at the expense of others, they acted in unison in relation to other states. The misls held biannual meetings of their legislature, the Sarbat Khalsa in Amritsar.
List of sovereign states under the Sikh Confederacy
List of MislsName | Founder | Founding clan(s) | Capital(s) | Other notable leaders | Strength in Regular Horseman (1746)[9] | Strength in Regular Horseman (1780)[10] [11] | Misl Period Territory by 1759[12] | Corresponding Current Area | Fate |
---|
Phulkian (ਫੂਲਕੀਆਂ Phūlkī'āṅ) | Phul Singh | Sidhu (Jat)[13] | Patiala Nabha Jind Faridkot | Ala Singh Amar Singh | 5,000 | 5,000 | Patiala, Nabha, Jind, Kaithal, Barnala, Bathinda, Sangrur | | Allied with the British and later became the princely states of Faridkot, Jind, Nabha, Malaudh and Patiala |
Ahluwalia (ਆਹਲੂਵਾਲੀਆ Āhlūwālī'ā) | Sadho Singh | Ahluwalia (Kalal)[14] | Kapurthala | Jassa Singh | 3,000 | 10,000 | Jalandhar district, Kapurthala district, Kana Dhillon, Nurmahal, Talwandi, Phagwara. | | Raja Fateh Singh would be allied with the Sikh Empire under Maharaja Ranjit Singh and later became the princely state of Kapurthala after the second Anglo-Sikh war[15] |
Bhangi (ਭੰਗੀ Bhangī) | Chhajja Singh | Dhillon (Jat)[16] | Amritsar | Bhuma Singh Hari Singh Jhanda Singh Ganda Singh | 10,000 | 30,000 | Tarn Taran, Lahore | Tarn Taran district, Lahore | Conquered by the Sukerchakia Misl which immediately formed the Sikh Empire |
Kanhaiya (ਕਨ੍ਹੱਈਆ Kanha'ī'ā) | Jai Singh | Sandhu (Jat)[17] | Sohian | Sada Kaur | 8,000 | 8,000 | Ajnala, Gurdaspur, Dera Baba Nanak, Kalanaur, Pathankot, Sujanpur, Mukerian,[18] | Gurdaspur district, Pathankot district, Hoshiarpur district | Annexed by the Sikh Empire |
Ramgarhia (ਰਾਮਗੜ੍ਹੀਆ Rāmgaṛhī'ā) | Jassa Singh | Ramgharia (Tarkhan)[19] | Sri Hargobindpur | Jodh Singh Tara Singh Mangal Singh | 3,000 | 5,000 | Batala, Urmar Tanda, Dasuya, Ghoman[20] | Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Jalandhar district, north of Amritsar | Annexed by the Sikh Empire |
Singhpuria (ਸਿੰਘਪੁਰੀਆ Singhpurī'ā) | Khushal Singh Budh Singh | Virk (Jat)[21] | Jalandhar | Khushal Singh Budh Singh | 2,500 | 5,000 | Singhpura, Amritsar, Sheikhupura, Jalandhar, Manauli, Bharatgarh, etc | Amritsar district, Sheikhupura District, Pakistan | Areas above the Sutlej river annexed by the Sikh Empire, areas below the river annexed by the British |
Panjgarhia (ਪੰਜਗੜੀਆ Panjgaṛī'ā) | Karora Singh | Virk, Dhaliwal, and Sandhu (Jat)[22]
| Shamchaurasi Hariana Chhachhrauli (Kalsia) | Baghel Singh Gur Bakhsh Singh[23] [24] Jodh Singh | 12,000 | 10,000 | Buria Hoshiarpur Hariana | Yamunanagar district, Hoshiarpur district | Annexed the British and later became the princely state of Kalsia, all territories above the Sutlej river annexed by the Sikh Empire |
Nishanwalia (ਨਿਸ਼ਾਨਵਾਲੀਆ Nishānwālī'ā) | Dasaundha Singh | Gill, Shergill (Jat)[25] | Ambala Shahbad Markanda | Sangat Singh Sukha Singh Mehar Singh | 12,000 | 2,000 | Shahbad Markanda, Ambala, Ropar, Sri Anandpur Sahib | Ambala district, Ropar district, Present Chandigarh Area, Yamuna Nagar district, Shahbad Markanda and Kurukshetra | Annexed by the British Raj and Sikh Empire for territories above the Sutlej river |
Sukerchakia (ਸ਼ੁੱਕਰਚੱਕੀਆ Shukarchakī'ā) | Charat Singh | Sandhawalia, Hayer (Jat)[26] | Gujranwala | | 2,500 | 75,000 | Mughal Chak, Qila Didar Singh, Qila Mihan Singh, Ladhe Wala Waraich, Ferozewala, Butala Sham Singh, Marali Wala, Eminabad, Kalaske. | | Formed the Sikh Empire |
Dallewalia (ਡੱਲੇਵਾਲੀਆ Ḍalēvālī'ā) | Gulab Singh | Khatri, Kang & Badesha (Jat) [27] [28] | Rahon | | 7,500 | 5,000 | Rahon, Nawashahr, Garshankar, Mahilpur, Banga, Phillaur, Nakodar, Shahkot, Dharamkot, Ropar-Sialba, Khanna, etc. | Ludhiana district, Jalandhar district | |
Nakai (ਨਕਈ Naka'ī) | Heera Singh | Sandhu, Hundal (Jat)[29] | Chunian | Ran Singh Karmo Kaur Kahan Singh | 2,000 | 7,000 | Baherwal, Khem Karan, Khudian, Gogera, Depalpur, Okara, Pakistan etc. | Okara district, Pakistan | Annexed by the Sikh Empire |
Shaheedan (ਸ਼ਹੀਦਾਂ Shahīdāṅ) | Baba Deep Singh | Sandhu and Benipal (Jat)[30] | Shahzadpur | Karam Singh Sadhu Singh Phula Singh | 2,000 | 5,000 | Talwandi Sabo, Shahzadpur. | Bathinda district, Panchkula district | Annexed by the Sikh Empire |
|
Military
Each Misl was made up of members of soldiers, whose loyalty was given to the Misl's leader. A Misl could be composed of a few hundred to tens of thousands of soldiers. Any soldier was free to join whichever Misl he wished, and was free to cancel his membership of the Misl to whom he belonged. He could, if he wanted, cancel his membership of his old Misl and join another. The Barons would allow their armies to combine or coordinate their defences together against a hostile force if ordered by the Misldar Supreme Commander. These orders were only issued in military matters affecting the whole Sikh community. These orders would normally be related to defense against external threats, such as Afghan military attacks. The profits of a fighting action were divided by the misls to individuals based on the service rendered after the conflict using the sardari system.
The Sikh Confederacy is a description of the political structure, of how all the barons' chiefdoms interacted with each other politically together in Punjab. Although misls varied in strength, the use of primarily light cavalry with a smaller amount heavy cavalry was uniform throughout all of the Sikh misls. Cavalrymen in a misl were required to supply their own horses and equipment. A standard cavalryman was armed with a spear, matchlock, and scimitar.[31] How the armies of the Sikh misls received payment varied with the leadership of each misl. The most prevalent system of payment was the 'Fasalandari' system; soldiers would receive payment every six months at the end of a harvest.[32]
Cavalry tactics
Fauja Singh considers the Sikh misls to be guerrilla armies, although he notes that the Sikh misls generally had greater numbers and a larger number of artillery pieces than a guerrilla army would. The misls were primarily cavalry based armies and employed less artillery than Mughal or Maratha armies. The misls adapted their tactics to their strength in cavalry and weakness in artillery and avoided pitched battles. Misls organized their armies around bodies of horsemen and their units fought battles in a series of skirmishes, a tactic which gave them an advantage over fighting pitched battles. Bodies of cavalry would attack a position, retreat, reload their muskets, and return to attack it again. The tactics used by misl field armies include flanking an enemy, obstructing river passages, cutting off a unit from its supplies, intercepting messengers, attacking isolated units like foraging parties, employing hit-and-run tactics, overrunning camps, and attacking baggage trains. To fight large armies the misl would completely evacuate the areas in front of the enemy's marching route but follow in the rear of the opposition and reconquer areas the enemy had just captured, threaten agents of the enemy with retribution, and sweep over the countryside in the wake of the enemy's withdrawal.
The Running Skirmish was a tactic unique to the Sikh cavalrymen which was notable for its effectiveness and the high degree of skill required to execute it. George Thomas and George Forster, contemporary writers who witnessed it described its use separately in their accounts of the military of the Sikhs. George Forster noted:
"A party from forty to fifty, advance in a quick pace to a distance of carbine shot from the enemy and then, that the fire may be given with the greatest certainty, the horses are drawn up and their pieces discharged, when speedily, retiring about a 100 paces, they load and repeat the same mode of annoying the enemy. Their horses have been so expertly trained to a performance of this operation that on receiving a stroke of hand, they stop from a full canter."
Administration
The Sikh Misls had four different classes of administrative divisions. The patadari, misaldari, tabadari, and jagirdari were the different systems of land tenure used by the misls, and land granted by the misl left the responsibility of establishing law and order to the owner of the land. The land under the direct administration of the chief of the misl was known as the sardari and the tabadari and jagirdari systems used land directly given by the chief from the sardari. The patadari and misaldari systems formed the basis of a misl, while tabadari and jagirdari lands would only be created after large acquisitions of land. The type of system that was used in an area depended on the importance of the chief sardar of the area to the rest of the misl.
Patadari system
The Patadari system affected newly annexed territories and was the original method used by the misls in administering land. The patadari system relied on the cooperation of surkundas, the rank of a leader of a small party of cavalrymen. The chief of the misl would take his/her portion and divide the other parcels among his Sardars proportional to the number of cavalrymen they had contributed to the misl. The Sardars would then divide their parcels among their Surkundas, and then the Surkundas subdivided the land they received among their individual cavalrymen. The Surkundas receiving parcels of land with settlements were required to fortify them and establish fines and laws for their zamindars and ryots. Parcels of land in the patadari system could not be sold, but could be given to relatives in an inheritance. The soldiers who received parcels from the Patadari system held their land in complete freedom.
Misaldari system
The Misaldari system applied to sardars with a small number of cavalrymen as well as independent bodies of cavalrymen who voluntarily attached themselves to a misl. They kept the lands they held before joining the misl as an allotment for their cooperation with the misl. The leaders of these groups, called misaldars, could transfer their allegiance and land to another misl without punishment.
Tabadari system
The Tabadari system referred to land under the control of a misl's tabadars. Tabadars served a similar function to retainers in Europe. They were required to serve as cavalrymen to the misl and were subservient to the misl's leader. Although tabadars received their land as a reward, their ownership was subject entirely on the misl's leader. The tabadari grants were only hereditary on the choice of the chief of the misl.
Jagirdari system
The Jagirdari system used the grant of jagirs by the chief of the misl. Jagirs were given by the chief of the misl to relations, dependents, and people who "deserved well". The owners of jagirs were subservient to the chief of the misl as their ownership was subject to his/her needs. Like the Tabadars, jagirdars were subject to personal service when the chief of the misl requested. However, because jagirs entailed more land and profit, they were required to use the money generated by their jagirs to equip and mount a quota of cavalrymen depending on the size of their jagir. Jagirdari grants were hereditary in practice but a misl's chief could revoke the rights of the heir. Upon the death of the owner of a tabadari or jagadari grant, the land would revert to direct control of the chief (sardari).
Rakhi system
The Rakhi system was the payment-for-protection tributary protectorate scheme practiced by the Dal Khalsa of the Sikh Confederacy in the 18th century.[33] [34] It was a large source of income to the Sikh Misls.[33] [35]
Territory
The two main divisions in territory between the misls were between those who were in the Malwa region and those who were in the Majha region. While eleven of the misls were north of the Sutlej river, one, the Phulkian Misl was south of the Sutlej. The Sikhs north of the Sutlej river were known as the Majha Sikhs while the Sikhs that lived south of the Sutlej river were known as the Malwa Sikhs. In the smaller territories were the Dhanigeb Singhs in the Sind Sagar Doab, the Gujrat Singhs in the Jech Doab, the Dharpi Singhs in the Rechna Doab, and the Doaba Singhs in the Jalandhar Doab.
Battles fought by Sikhs
- Battle of Rohilla
- Battle of Kartarpur
- Battle of Amritsar (1634)
- Battle of Lahira
- Battle of Bhangani
- Battle of Nadaun
- Battle of Guler (1696)
- Battle of Basoli
- First Battle of Anandpur
- Battle of Nirmohgarh (1702)
- Second Battle of Anandpur
- Second Battle of Chamkaur (1704)
- Battle of Muktsar
- Battle of Sonepat
- Battle of Ambala
- Battle of Samana
- Battle of Chappar Chiri
- Battle of Sadhaura
- Battle of Rahon (1710)
- Battle of Lohgarh
- Battle of Jammu
- Battle of Jalalabad (1710)
- Siege of Gurdaspur or Battle of Gurdas Nangal
- Battle of Manupur (1748)
- Battle of Amritsar (1757)
- Battle of Lahore (1759)
- Battle of Sialkot (1761)
- Battle of Gujranwala (1761)
- Sikh Occupation of Lahore[36]
- Sikh holocaust of 1762 or Battle of Kup
- Battle of Harnaulgarh
- Battle of Amritsar (1767)
- Battle of Sialkot (1763)
- Battle of Sirhind (1764)
- Battle of Delhi (1783)
- Battle of Amritsar(1797)
- Gurkha-Sikh War
- Battles of Sialkot
- Battle of Jammu (1808)
- Battle of Attock
- Battle of Multan
- Battle of Shopian
- Battle of Balakot
- Battle of Peshawar (1834)
- Battle of Jamrud
- Sino-Sikh War
- Battle of Mudki
- Battle of Ferozeshah
- Battle of Baddowal
- Battle of Aliwal
- Battle of Sobraon
- Battle of Chillianwala
- Battle of Ramnagar
- Siege of Multan (1772)
- Battle of Gujrat
See also
Bibliography
-
- Book: M'Gregor, William Lewis. The history of the Sikhs: containing the lives of the Gooroos; the history of the independent Sirdars, or Missuls, and the life of the great founder of the Sikh monarchy, Maharajah Runjeet Singh. 216. 2 July 2010. 1846. J. Madden.
- Book: Singh, Fauja. Military system of the Sikhs: during the period 1799–1849. 1 July 2010. 1964. Motilal Banarsidass.
- Book: Prinsep, Henry Thoby. Origin of the Sikh power in the Punjab, and political life of Muha-Raja Runjeet Singh: with an account of the present condition, religion, laws and customs of the Sikhs. 8 June 2010. 1834. G.H. Huttmann.
- Book: Cave-Browne, John. The Punjab and Delhi in 1857: being a narrative of the measures by which the Punjab was saved and Delhi recovered during the Indian Mutiny. 10 June 2010. 1861. William Blackwood and Sons.
- Book: CITEREFSikh_Missionary_College. Brief History of the Sikh Misls . Sikh Missionary College . Jalandhar .
- Book: Suri, Sohan Lal. Umdat-ut-Tawarikh, DAFTAR III, PARTS (I—V) 1831–1839 A.D.. 1961. S. Chand & Co. Delhi.
- Book: Punjab Through the Ages . Kakshi . S.R. . Rashmi . Pathak . S.R. . Bakshi . R. . Pathak . 2007 . Sarup and Son . 978-81-7625-738-1 .
- Book: Oberoi, Harjot. The Construction of religious boundaries: culture, identity, and diversity in the Sikh tradition. 14 June 2010. 1994. University of Chicago Press. 978-0-226-61593-6.
- Ahmad Shah Batalia, Appendix to Sohan Lal Suri's Umdat-ut-Tawarikh. Daftar I, Lahore, 1X85, p. 15; Bute Shahs Tawarikh-i-Punjab, Daftar IV, (1848), (MS., Ganda Singh's personal collection. Patiala), p. 6; Kanaihya Lal, Tarikh-i-Punjab, Lahore, 1877, p. 88; Ali-ud-Din Mufti, Ibratnama, Vol. I, (1854), Lahore, 1961, p. 244. Muhammad Latif, History of the Punjab (1891), Delhi, 1964, p. 296.
- Ian Heath, The Sikh Army, 1799–1849 (Men-at-arms), Osprey (2005)
- Harbans Singh, The Heritage of the Sikhs, second rev. ed., Manohar (1994)
- Hari Ram Gupta, History of the Sikhs: Sikh Domination of the Mughal Empire, 1764–1803, second ed., Munshiram Manoharlal (2000)
- Hari Ram Gupta, History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of the Misls, rev. ed., Munshiram Manoharlal (2001)
- Gian Singh, Tawarikh Guru Khalsa, (ed. 1970), p. 261.
Notes and References
- Book: A History of the Sikhs: 1469-1838 . 978-0-19-567308-1 . Singh . Khushwant . 26 March 2024 . Oxford University Press .
- Book: Herrli, Hans . The Coins of the Sikhs . 1993 . 11 . The word misl seems to have been derived from an Arabic word meaning: equal..
- News: Ian. Heath. The Sikh Army . 1 January 2005 . Osprey . 9781841767772. 9 June 2013 .
- News: The Khalsa Era . 2011 . Nishan Sahib . 9 June 2013 .
- Kaur . Prabhjot . Sharma . Rohita . 3 June 2021 . CONTRIBUTION OF SIKH MISLS IN GREAT SIKH HISTORY . Impact Journals . 9 . 6 . 20.
- Book: Gandhi, Surjit Singh . History of Sikh Gurus Retold: 1606–1708 C.E . 1 February 2008 . Atlantic Publishing . 978-81-269-0858-5 . 814 . 13 Khalsa Battles Against Islamic Imperialism and Hindu Conservatism.
- Book: Singh, Harbans . The Encyclopedia of Sikhism . Punjabi University, Patiala . 2: E-L . 362–3.
- Book: Singh, Khushwant. A History of the Sikhs: 1469–1838. 1 April 2011. 2nd. 11 October 2004. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-567308-1. 165.
- Book: Herrli, Hans . Coins of the Sikhs . 1993 . 11 . The list is based on data given by H.T. PRINSEP..
- Book: Griffin, Lepel Henry . Ranjít Singh . 1893 . Clarendon Press . 78 .
- Web site: Sikh Misals (equal bands). Sandeep Singh. Bajwa. 24 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20180910232917/http://sikh-history.com/sikhhist/events/misls.html. 10 September 2018. dead.
- Book: GUPTA, HARI RAM. TRANS-SATLUJ SIKH. THE MINEVERA BOOK SHOP. 1944. LAHORE. 3.
- Book: Griffin, sir Lepel Henry . The rajas of the Punjab, the history of the principal states in the Punjab and their political relations with the British government . 1870 . en.
- Book: Dhavan, Purnima . When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699-1799 . 2011-11-02 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-987717-1 . en.
- Web site: Teja . Charanjit . Heritage status - Amritsar's Qila Ahluwalia: Original architecture missing, but colonial structures intact .
- Web site: Bhangi Misl. Sandeep Singh. Bajwa. 24 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160304135121/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/events/bhangi.html. 4 March 2016. dead.
- Web site: Misal Kanhaiya. Sandeep Singh. Bajwa. 24 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20180815162834/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/events/m-kanhaiya.html. 15 August 2018. dead.
- Book: Gupta, HARI RAM. TRANS SATLUJ SIKHS. THE MINEVERA BOOK SHOP. 1944. Lahore. 3.
- Book: Dhir, Krishna S. . The Wonder That Is Urdu . Motilal Banarsidass . 2022 . 9788120843011 . 1st . Delhi . 536–537 .
- Book: GUPTA, HARI RAM. TRANS SATLUJ SIKHS. THE MINEVERA BOOK SHOP. 1944. LAHORE. 3.
- Web site: The Sodhis of Anandpur Sahib. 24 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160711173309/http://punjabrevenue.nic.in/gazropr5.htm. 11 July 2016. dead.
- Web site: Misal Karorasinghia. Sandeep Singh. Bajwa. 24 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20180815234705/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/events/m-karorasinghia.html. 15 August 2018. dead.
- https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V14_326.gif Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 14, p. 320.
- News: Kalsia's royal past recreated . The Tribune . Roopinder Singh . 1 March 2015 .
- Book: Griffin, Lepel H. . History of the Panjab Chiefs . 352.
- Web site: Service . Tribune News . Braving the ravages of time . 2022-11-05 . Tribuneindia News Service . en.
- Book: Singh, Khazan . History of the Sikh Religion . 1970 . Department of Languages, Punjab . en.
- Book: Journal of Regional History . 1981 . Department of History, Guru Nanak Dev University . en.
- Web site: Misal Nakai. Sandeep Singh. Bajwa. 24 April 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20180815232212/http://www.sikh-history.com/sikhhist/events/m-nakai.html. 15 August 2018. dead.
- Book: Bhagata, Siṅgha. A History of the Sikh Misals. Publication Bureau, Punjabi University. 1993. 241. Deep Singh Shahid, a mazhabi sikh and resident of the village of Pohuwind of the pargana of Amritsar....
- Book: Francklin, William. Military memoirs of Mr. George Thomas; who, by extraordinary talents and enterprise, rose from an obscure situation to the rank of a general, in the service of the native powers in the North-West of India. 30 June 2010. 1805. Reprinted for John Stockdale. 107.
- Book: Singh, Fauja. Military system of the Sikhs: during the period 1799–1849. 30 June 2010. 1964. Motilal Banarsidass.
- Book: Bhagata, Siṅgha . A History of the Sikh Misals . Publication Bureau, Patiala Punjabi University . 1993 . 44–50.
- Book: Gopal Singh . Politics of Sikh homeland, 1940-1990 . 1994 . Ajanta Publications . 81-202-0419-0 . Delhi . 39–42 . 32242388.
- Book: Gopal Singh . Politics of Sikh homeland, 1940-1990 . 1994 . Ajanta Publications . 81-202-0419-0 . Delhi . 39–42 . 32242388.
- Book: Advanced study in the history of modern India 1707–1813. Mehta. J. L.. 2005. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. 978-1-932705-54-6. 303. 23 September 2010.