Sydney Brenner Explained

Sydney Brenner
Other Names:Uncle Syd
Birth Date:13 January 1927
Birth Place:Germiston, Transvaal, South Africa
Death Place:Singapore
Field:Biology
Thesis Title:The physical chemistry of cell processes: a study of bacteriophage resistance in Escherichia coli, strain B
Thesis Url:http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/OXVU1:oxfaleph020307634
Thesis Year:1954
Doctoral Advisor:Cyril Hinshelwood[1]
Known For:Genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans[2] [3]
Children:3

Sydney Brenner (13 January 1927 – 5 April 2019)[4] [5] was a South African biologist. In 2002, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with H. Robert Horvitz and Sir John E. Sulston.[6] Brenner made significant contributions to work on the genetic code, and other areas of molecular biology while working in the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge, England. He established the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism for the investigation of developmental biology,[2] [7] and founded the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley, California, United States.[8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13] [14]

Education and early life

Brenner was born in the town of Germiston in the then Transvaal (today in Gauteng), South Africa, on 13 January 1927. His parents, Leah[15] (née Blecher) and Morris Brenner, were Jewish immigrants. His father, a cobbler, came to South Africa from Lithuania in 1910, and his mother from Riga, Latvia, in 1922. He had one sister, Phyllis.[16] [17]

He was educated at Germiston High School and the University of the Witwatersrand. Having joined the university at the age of 15, it was noted during his second year that he would be too young to qualify for the practice of medicine at the conclusion of his six-year medical course, and he was therefore allowed to complete a Bachelor of Science degree in Anatomy and Physiology. During this time he was taught physical chemistry by Joel Mandelstam, microscopy by Alfred Oettle and neurology by Harold Daitz. He also received an introduction to anthropology and paleontology from Raymond Dart and Robert Broom. The histologist Joseph Gillman and director of research in the Anatomy Department persuaded Brenner to continue towards an honours degree and beyond towards an MSc. Brenner accepted though this would mean he would not graduate from medical school and his bursary would be discontinued. He supported himself during this time by working as a laboratory technician. It was during this time, in 1945, that Brenner would publish his first scientific works. His masters thesis was in the field of cytogenetics and publications during this time in the field Brenner would later call Cell Physiology.[16]

In 1946 Wilfred Le Gros Clark invited Brenner to his Department of Anatomy in Oxford, during a visit to South Africa. Brenner was persuaded to finish his medical education instead. Brenner returned to medical school where he failed Medicine, nearly failed Surgery and achieved a First Class in Obstetrics and Gynecology. Six months later Brenner had finished repeating Medicine and Surgery and in 1951 received the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBCh).[16]

Brenner received an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship from the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851 which enabled him to complete a Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil)[18] degree at the University of Oxford as a postgraduate student of Exeter College, Oxford, supervised by Cyril Hinshelwood.[19]

Career and research

Following his DPhil, Brenner did postdoctoral research at the University of California, Berkeley.[20] He spent the next 20 years at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology[21] in Cambridge. There, during the 1960s, he contributed to molecular biology, then an emerging field. In 1976 he joined the Salk Institute in California.

Together with Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. Oughton, he was one of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Francis Crick and James Watson; at the time he and the other scientists were working at the University of Oxford's Chemistry Department. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner, who subsequently worked with Crick in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge and the newly opened Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB). According to Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA.[22]

Brenner made several seminal contributions to the emerging field of molecular biology in the 1960s (see Phage group). The first was to prove that all overlapping genetic coding sequences were impossible. This insight separated the coding function from structural constraints as proposed in a clever code by George Gamow. This led Francis Crick to propose the concept of a hypothetical molecule (later identified as transfer RNA or tRNA) that transfer the genetic information from RNA to proteins. Brenner gave the name "adaptor hypothesis" in 1955.[23] The physical separation between the anticodon and the amino acid on a tRNA is the basis for the unidirectional flow of information in coded biological systems. This is commonly known as the central dogma of molecular biology, i.e. information flows from nucleic acid to protein and never from protein to nucleic acid. Following this adaptor insight, Brenner conceived of the concept of messenger RNA during an April 1960 conversation with Crick and François Jacob, and together with Jacob and Matthew Meselson went on to prove its existence later that summer.[24] Then, with Crick, Leslie Barnett, and Richard J. Watts-Tobin, Brenner genetically demonstrated the triplet nature of the code of protein translation through the Crick, Brenner, Barnett, Watts-Tobin et al. experiment of 1961,[25] which discovered frameshift mutations. Brenner collaborating with Sarabhai, Stretton and Bolle in 1964, using amber mutants defective in the bacteriophage T4D major head protein, showed that the nucleotide sequence of the gene is co-linear with the amino acid sequence of the encoded polypeptide chain.[26]

Together with the decoding work of Marshall Warren Nirenberg and others, the discovery of the triplet nature of the genetic code was critical to deciphering the code.[27] Barnett helped set up Sydney Brenner's laboratory in Singapore, many years later.[28] [29] Brenner, with George Pieczenik,[30] created the first computer matrix analysis of nucleic acids using TRAC, which Brenner continued to use. Crick, Brenner, Klug and Pieczenik returned to their early work on deciphering the genetic code with a pioneering paper on the origin of protein synthesis, where constraints on mRNA and tRNA co-evolved allowing for a five-base interaction with a flip of the anticodon loop, and thereby creating a triplet code translating system without requiring a ribosome. This model requires a partially overlapping code.[31] The published scientific paper is extremely rare in that its collaborators include three authors who independently became Nobel laureates.[32]

Brenner then focused on establishing a free-living roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism for the investigation of animal development including neural development. He chose this 1-millimeter-long soil roundworm mainly because it is simple, is easy to grow in bulk populations, and turned out to be quite convenient for genetic analysis. One of the key methods for identifying important function genes was the screen for roundworms that had some functional defect, such as being uncoordinated, leading to the identification of new sets of proteins, such as the UNC proteins. For this work, he shared the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston. The title of his Nobel lecture in December 2002, "Nature's Gift to Science", is a homage to this nematode; in it, he considered that having chosen the right organism turned out to be as important as having addressed the right problems to work on.[33] In fact, the C. elegans community has grown rapidly in recent decades with researchers working on a wide spectrum of problems.[34]

Brenner founded the Molecular Sciences Institute in Berkeley, California in 1996. he was associated with the Salk Institute, the Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, the Singapore Biomedical Research Council, the Janelia Farm Research Campus, and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. In August 2005, Brenner was appointed president of the Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology.[35] He was also on the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute,[36] as well as being Professor of Genetics there.[37] A scientific biography of Brenner was written by Errol Friedberg in the US, for publication by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press in 2010.[11]

Known for his penetrating scientific insight and acerbic wit, Brenner, for many years, authored a regular column ("Loose Ends") in the journal Current Biology.[38] [39] This column was so popular that "Loose ends from Current Biology", a compilation, was published by Current Biology Ltd.[40] and became a collectors' item. Brenner wrote "A Life in Science",[41] a paperback published by BioMed Central. He is also noted for his generosity with ideas and the great number of students and colleagues his ideas have stimulated.[42] [43] [44] [45]

In 2017, Brenner co-organized a seminal lecture series in Singapore describing ten logarithmic scales of time from the Big Bang to the present, spanning the appearance of multicellular life forms, the evolution of humans, and the emergence of language, culture and technology.[46] Prominent scientists and thinkers, including W. Brian Arthur, Svante Pääbo, Helga Nowotny and Jack Szostak, spoke during the lecture series. In 2018, the lectures were adapted into a popular science book titled Sydney Brenner's 10-on-10: The Chronicles of Evolution, published by Wildtype Books.[47]

Brenner also gave four lectures on the history of molecular biology, its impact on neuroscience and the great scientific questions that lie ahead.[48] The lectures were adapted into the book, In the Spirit of Science: Lectures by Sydney Brenner on DNA, Worms and Brains.[49]

American plan and European plan

The "American plan" and "European plan" were proposed by Sydney Brenner as competing models for the way brain cells determine their neural functions.[8] [50] [51] According to the European plan (sometimes referred to as the British plan), the function of cells is determined by their genetic lineage. According to the American plan, a cell's function is determined by the function of its neighbours after cell migration. Further research has shown that most species follow some combination of these methods, albeit in varying degrees, to transfer information to new cells.[52] [53]

Awards and honours

Brenner received numerous awards and honours, including:[54] [55]

Personal life

Brenner was married to May Brenner (subsequently Balkind) from December 1952 until her death in January 2010; their children include Belinda, Carla, Stefan, and his stepson Jonathan Balkind from his wife's first marriage to Marcus Balkind. He lived in Ely, Cambridgeshire.[62] [63] He was an atheist.[64]

Brenner died on 5 April 2019, in Singapore, at the age of 92.[6] [65] [66]

See also

Further reading

Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,, published on 25 August 2009.
Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives) first published in June 2006 in the US and then in the UK September 2006, by HarperCollins Publishers; 192 pp, ; in paperback, by Atlas Books (with index), .
How We Live and Why We Die, Faber and Faber 2009, 240 pp;

External links

Notes and References

  1. Thompson. H.. 10.1098/rsbm.1973.0015. 11615727. Cyril Norman Hinshelwood 1897-1967. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 19. 374–431. 1973. Cyril Norman Hinshelwood. 12385145.
  2. Brenner . Sydney . The genetics of Caenorhabditis elegans . Genetics . 77 . 1 . 71–94 . 1974 . 10.1093/genetics/77.1.71 . 4366476 . 1213120.
  3. Sulston . J. . Brenner . S. . The DNA of Caenorhabditis elegans . Genetics . 77 . 1 . 95–104 . 1974 . 10.1093/genetics/77.1.95 . 4858229 . 1213121.
  4. News: Sydney Brenner, a Decipherer of the Genetic Code, Is Dead at 92. Nicholas. Wade. 5 April 2019. The New York Times. 8 April 2019. 5 April 2019. https://archive.today/20190405190845/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/obituaries/sydney-brenner-dead.html. live.
  5. White. John. Bretscher. Mark S.. 2020. Sydney Brenner. 13 January 1927—5 April 2019. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 69. 78–108. 10.1098/rsbm.2020.0022. 221399685. free.
  6. Friedberg. Errol. Sydney Brenner (1927–2019) Mischievous steward of molecular biology's golden age. Nature. 568. 7753. 2019. 459. 0028-0836. 10.1038/d41586-019-01192-9. 30988427 . Errol Friedberg. free.
  7. Hodgkin . JA . Jonathan Hodgkin. Brenner . S . Mutations causing transformation of sexual phenotype in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. . Genetics . 86 . 2 Pt. 1 . 1977 . 0016-6731 . 560330 . 1213677 . 275–87. 10.1093/genetics/86.2.275 .
  8. The Science Times Book of the Brain 1998. Edited by Nicholas Wade. The Lyons Press
  9. [Horace Freeland Judson]
  10. Brenner. S.. Elgar. G.. Sanford. R.. Macrae. A.. Venkatesh. B.. Aparicio. S.. Characterization of the pufferfish (Fugu) genome as a compact model vertebrate genome. Nature. 366. 6452. 1993. 265–68. 0028-0836. 10.1038/366265a0. 8232585. 1993Natur.366..265B. 2715056.
  11. "Sydney Brenner: A Biography" by Errol Friedberg, pub. CSHL Press October 2010, .
  12. de Chadarevian. Soraya. Interview with Sydney Brenner. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. 40. 1. 2009. 65–71. 1369-8486. 10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.12.008. 19268875.
  13. Friedberg. Errol C.. Sydney Brenner. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 9. 1. 2008. 8–9. 1471-0072. 10.1038/nrm2320. 18159633. 1037231.
  14. Web site: Sydney Brenner publications. Google Scholar. 28 September 2008. 18 September 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190918170110/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=sydney+brenner. live.
  15. Web site: Errol C. Friedberg. Sydney Brenner: A Biography. cshlpress.com. 5 April 2019. 6 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190406060300/https://www.cshlpress.com/pdf/sample/BrennerBio.pdf. live.
  16. Web site: Sydney Brenner, Biographical. nobelprize.org. 6 April 2019. 23 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201023073829/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2002/brenner/biographical/. live.
  17. Web site: Brenner, Sydney (1927–) World of Microbiology and Immunology. encyclopedia.com. 27 July 2016. 20 August 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160820164238/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Sydney_Brenner.aspx. live.
  18. DPhil. Syndney. Brenner. The physical chemistry of cell processes: a study of bacteriophage resistance in Escherichia coli, strain B. University of Oxford. 1954. 775695643. . 25 August 2015. 23 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201023073849/http://solo.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/primo-explore/fulldisplay?vid=SOLO&docid=oxfaleph020307634&context=L&search_scope=default_scope. live.
  19. Web site: Dr Sydney Brenner. Exeter College. en. 6 April 2019. 6 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190406012421/https://www.exeter.ox.ac.uk/people/dr-sydney-brenner/. dead.
  20. Web site: Sydney Brenner: Senior Distinguished Fellow of the Crick-Jacobs Center. Salk Institute. 25 August 2015. 1 October 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001010916/http://www.salk.edu/faculty/brenner.html. live.
  21. John Finch; 'A Nobel Fellow on Every Floor', Medical Research Council 2008;
    This book is all about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge.
  22. Olby, Robert, Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2009, Chapter 10, pg. 181;
  23. Web site: Crick . Francis . 1955 . On Degenerate Templates and the Adaptor Hypothesis: A Note for the RNA Tie Club . 2022-07-21 . National Library of Medicine . 16 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220816132804/https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/catalog/nlm:nlmuid-101584582X73-doc . live .
  24. Cobb . Matthew . Matthew Cobb . Who discovered messenger RNA? . Current Biology . 29 June 2015 . 10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.032 . 25 . 13 . R526–R532. 26126273 . free . 2015CBio...25.R526C .
  25. 10.1038/1921227a0 . Crick . Francis . Francis Crick . Barnett . Leslie . Leslie Barnett . Brenner . Sydney . Watts-Tobin . Richard J . General nature of the genetic code for proteins. Nature. 192. 4809. 1227–32. 1961. 13882203. 1961Natur.192.1227C. 4276146.
  26. Sarabhai AS, Stretton AO, Brenner S, Bolle A. Co-linearity of the gene with the polypeptide chain. Nature. 1964 Jan 4;201:13-7. doi: 10.1038/201013a0. PMID 14085558
  27. Web site: The Thrill of Defeat: What Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner taught me about being scooped . Goldstein . Bob . May 30, 2019 . Nautilus . Jan 21, 2021 . 10 December 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211210101407/https://nautil.us/issue/72/quandary/the-thrill-of-defeat-rp . dead .
  28. Web site: Uncovering a scientific life in the archives. 19 February 2014. L.. Kaplish. 5 April 2019. Wellcome Library blog. 23 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201023073941/http://blog.wellcomelibrary.org/2014/02/uncovering-a-scientific-life-in-the-archives/. live.
  29. A Study into the Prospects for Marine Biotechnology Development in the United Kingdom. Lloyd-Evans, L. P. M.. January 2005. 2 – Background & Appendices. Foresight Marine Panel Marine Biotechnology Group. 5 April 2019. 237. 23 October 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201023073931/https://www.biobridge.co.uk/ClientArea/files/Publications/MARINE%20BIOTECHNOLOGY%20DEVELOPMENT%20in%20UK%20M%20Lloyd-Evans%20Jan%202005%20Vol%202.pdf. live.
  30. Web site: Letter by Brenner (primary source). rutgers.edu. 8 April 2019. 7 November 2004. https://web.archive.org/web/20041107101749/http://rci.rutgers.edu/~piecze/Brenner.pdf. dead.
  31. Crick. FH. Brenner. S. Klug. A. Pieczenik. G. A speculation on the origin of protein synthesis.. Origins of Life. December 1976. 7. 4. 389–97. 1023138. 1976OrLi....7..389C. 10.1007/BF00927934. 42319222.
  32. Crick won a Nobel prize in 1962, Brenner in 2002, and Klug in 1982. However, this is not the only case. See Barton. D. H. R.. Jeger. O.. Prelog. V.. Woodward. R. B.. The constitutions of cevine and some related alkaloids. Experientia. March 1954. 10. 3. 81–90. 10.1007/BF02158513. 13161888. 27430632. Barton (1969), Prelog (1975) and Woodward (1965) all became Nobel winners.
  33. including the Nobel Lecture 8 December 2002 Nature's Gift to Science
  34. Brenner. Sydney. 2009-06-01. In the Beginning Was the Worm …. Genetics. en. 182. 2. 413–415. 10.1534/genetics.109.104976. 0016-6731. 2691750. 19506024.
  35. Web site: Dr. Sydney Brenner | Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University OIST . Oist.jp . 12 January 2010. 2016-12-01 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20151218104648/http://www.oist.jp/dr-sydney-brenner . 18 December 2015.
  36. http://www.scripps.edu/about/leadership/governors.html Profile
  37. Web site: Sydney Brenner PhD. scripps.edu. https://web.archive.org/web/20120202220930/http://www.scripps.edu/research/faculty/brenner. 2 February 2012 .
  38. Web site: Library: Sydney Brenner's Loose Ends. cell.com. 25 August 2015. 6 May 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160506193307/http://www.cell.com/current-biology/libraries/loose-ends. live.
  39. Brenner. Sydney. Loose Ends. Current Biology. 4. 1. 1994. 88. 0960-9822. 10.1016/S0960-9822(00)00023-3. free. 1994CBio....4...88B .
  40. Loose ends from Current Biology (1997)
  41. A Life in Science (2001)
  42. Web site: Coming from Eastern European stock. Sydney. Brenner. www.webofstories.com. 9 April 2019. 24 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230924105456/https://www.webofstories.com/play/sydney.brenner/1;jsessionid=49E6A4FDF23AE4227DA43FC7328E3CB1. live.
  43. Web site: Sydney Brenner interviewed by Alan Macfarlane, 2007-08-23 (film). alanmacfarlane.com. 12 January 2009. 16 April 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120416025158/http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/ancestors/brenner.htm. live.
  44. Web site: Genomes Tell Us About the Past: Sydney Brenner. iBiology.org. 20 June 2018. 21 June 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015821/https://www.ibiology.org/archive/genomes-tell-us-about-the-past/. live.
  45. Web site: The Sydney Brenner papers . Wellcome Library . 2016-10-25 . 2016-12-01 . 9 February 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140209062100/http://wellcomelibrary.org/using-the-library/subject-guides/genetics/makers-of-modern-genetics/digitised-archives/sydney-brenner/ . live .
  46. Web site: 10-on-10: The Chronicles of Evolution. 6 November 2018. 28 February 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210228122105/http://www.paralimes.ntu.edu.sg/NewsnEvents/10-on-10%20The%20Chronicle%20of%20Evolution/Pages/Home.aspx. dead.
  47. Book: Sydney Brenner's 10-on-10: The Chronicles of Evolution . Wildtype Books. 978-9811187186. 2018-11-09.
  48. Web site: Sydney Brenner's lectures . 8 April 2019 . 28 February 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210228120850/http://www.paralimes.ntu.edu.sg/NewsnEvents/Sydney%20Brenners%20lectures/Pages/Home.aspx . dead .
  49. Book: In the Spirit of Science: Lectures by Sydney Brenner on DNA, Worms and Brains . World Scientific Publishing Co . 978-981-3271-73-9 . 10.1142/11029 . 2018 . Brenner . Sydney . Sejnowski . Terrence .
  50. Book: Gilbert, S.F.. Developmental Biology. Sinauer Associates. 978-0-87893-243-6. 2000. The Developmental Mechanics of Cell Specification. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9968/. Sunderland (MA).
  51. Book: McKay, R.. Isolation, Characterization and Utilization of CNS Stem Cells. Springer-Verlag. 1997. The Origins of the Central Nervous System. Berlin Heidelberg. 169–170. F.H.. Gage. Y.. Christen. https://books.google.com/books?id=OML3CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169. 978-3-642-80308-6. 13 August 2019. 24 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230924105533/https://books.google.com/books?id=OML3CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169. live.
  52. Book: Marcus, Gary Fred. The Birth of the Mind: How a Tiny Number of Genes Creates the Complexities of Human Thought. 2004. Basic Books. 9780465044054. 64. en. 6 April 2019. 24 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230924105456/https://books.google.com/books?id=TMkfOM1rPuUC&pg=PA64. live.
  53. Book: Rensberger, Boyce. Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. 1998. Oxford University Press. 9780195125009. 162. en. 6 April 2019. 24 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230924105454/https://books.google.com/books?id=tPD8AkvqERMC&pg=PA162. live.
  54. Web site: Sydney Brenner CV. ETH Zurich. 6 April 2019. 9 November 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20181109193742/https://www.ethz.ch/content/dam/ethz/special-interest/dual/pauli-dam/04/2004-01_cv.pdf. live.
  55. Web site: Sydney Brenner Curriculum Vitae. NobelPrize.org. 6 April 2019. 5 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190405215956/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2002/brenner/cv/. live.
  56. Web site: All Gairdner Winners. 5 April 2019. The Canada Gairdner Awards. 1 March 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210301065404/https://gairdner.org/winners/index-of-winners/?_sf_s=sydney%20brenner&_sfm_winner_year=1959+2020. live.
  57. Web site: 2002 Nobel Prize. nobelprize.org. 28 September 2008. 5 September 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20080905055451/http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2002/index.html. live.
  58. Web site: Dan David Prize laureate 2002: Sydney Brenner. dandavidprize.org. 28 September 2008. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20110723051104/http://www.dandavidprize.org/index.php/laureates/laureates-2002/75-2002-future-life-sciences/119-prof-sydney-brenner.html. 23 July 2011.
  59. Sudhausi. Walter. Kiontke, Karin. Comparison of the cryptic nematode species Caenorhabditis brenneri sp. n. Zootaxa. 25 April 2007. 1456. 45–62. 10.11646/zootaxa.1456.1.2. 20 May 2009. 10 July 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070710044058/http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2007f/zt01456p062.pdf. live.
  60. Web site: Sydney Brenner Institute for Molecular Bioscience. University of the Witwatersrand. 28 September 2008. 1 December 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121201005942/http://www.wits.ac.za/research/sbimb. live.
  61. Web site: There's a New Squid in Town. 2019-12-11. Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University OIST. en. 2020-02-15. 15 February 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200215011000/https://www.oist.jp/news-center/press-releases/theres-new-squid-town. live.
  62. "Loose Ends" : Collection of Loose Ends/False Starts columns by 'Uncle Syd.' from January 1994 to December 2000 (Current Biology, 1997)
  63. 'My Life in Science', with Lewis Wolpert, edited by Errol C. Friedberg and Eleanor Lawrence, BioMed Central, 2001;
  64. Book: Candid Science VI: More Conversations with Famous Scientists . István Hargittai . Magdolna Hargittai . 32 . 2006 . World Scientific . 9781908977533 . 5 September 2020 . 24 September 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230924105454/https://books.google.com/books?id=bDHwCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 . live .
  65. Web site: Sim. Shuzhen. Sydney Brenner, 'father of the worm' and decoder of DNA, dies at 92. asianscientist.com. 5 April 2019. 5 April 2019. 8 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200508102530/https://www.asianscientist.com/2019/04/topnews/sydney-brenner-nobel-laureate-dies-92-c-elegans-obituary/. live.
  66. Web site: Sydney Brenner (1927–2019). MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology. 6 April 2019. 5 April 2019. 6 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190406115523/https://www2.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/sydney-brenner-1927-2019/. live.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Sydney Brenner".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.