Serif Explained

In typography, a serif is a small line or stroke regularly attached to the end of a larger stroke in a letter or symbol within a particular font or family of fonts. A typeface or "font family" making use of serifs is called a serif typeface (or serifed typeface), and a typeface that does not include them is sans-serif. Some typography sources refer to sans-serif typefaces as "grotesque" (in German, German: grotesk) or "Gothic"[1] (although this often refers to blackletter type as well) and serif typefaces as "roman" (or in German, German: Antiqua).

Serif typefaces can be broadly classified into one of four subgroups:,, and, in order of first appearance. Some Old-style typefaces can be classified further into one of two subgroups: and .

Origins and etymology

Serifs originated from the first official Greek writings on stone and in Latin alphabet with inscriptional lettering—words carved into stone in Roman antiquity. The explanation proposed by Father Edward Catich in his 1968 book The Origin of the Serif is now broadly but not universally accepted: the Roman letter outlines were first painted onto stone, and the stone carvers followed the brush marks, which flared at stroke ends and corners, creating serifs. Another theory is that serifs were devised to neaten the ends of lines as they were chiselled into stone.[2] [3] [4]

The origin of the word 'serif' is obscure, but apparently is almost as recent as the type style. The book The British Standard of the Capital Letters contained in the Roman Alphabet, forming a complete code of systematic rules for a mathematical construction and accurate formation of the same (1813) by William Hollins, defined 'surripses', usually pronounced "surriphs", as "projections which appear at the tops and bottoms of some letters, the O and Q excepted, at the beginning or end, and sometimes at each, of all". The standard also proposed that 'surripsis' may be a Greek word derived from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: σῠν- ("together") and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ῥῖψῐς ("projection").

In 1827, Greek scholar Julian Hibbert printed with his own experimental uncial Greek types, remarking that the types of Giambattista Bodoni's Callimachus were "ornamented (or rather disfigured) by additions of what [he] believe[s] type-founders call syrifs or cerefs". The printer Thomas Curson Hansard referred to them as "ceriphs" in 1825.[5] The oldest citations in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) are 1830 for 'serif' and 1841 for 'sans serif'. The OED speculates that 'serif' was a back-formation from 'sanserif'.

Webster's Third New International Dictionary traces 'serif' to the Dutch noun Dutch; Flemish: schreef, meaning "line, stroke of the pen", related to the verb Dutch; Flemish: schrappen, "to delete, strike through" (Dutch; Flemish: 'schreef' now also means "serif" in Dutch). Yet, Dutch; Flemish: schreef is the past tense of Dutch; Flemish: schrijven (to write). The relation between Dutch; Flemish: schreef and Dutch; Flemish: schrappen is documented by Van Veen and Van der Sijs.[6] In her book Dutch; Flemish: Chronologisch Woordenboek,[7] Van der Sijs lists words by first known publication in the language area that is the Netherlands today:

The OEDs earliest citation for "grotesque" in this sense is 1875, giving 'stone-letter' as a synonym. It would seem to mean "out of the ordinary" in this usage, as in art 'grotesque' usually means "elaborately decorated". Other synonyms include "Doric" and "Gothic", commonly used for Japanese Gothic typefaces.[8]

Classification

Old-style

Old-style typefaces date back to 1465, shortly after Johannes Gutenberg's adoption of the movable type printing press. Early printers in Italy created types that broke with Gutenberg's blackletter printing, creating upright and later italic styles inspired by Renaissance calligraphy.[9] Old-style serif fonts have remained popular for setting body text because of their organic appearance and excellent readability on rough book paper. The increasing interest in early printing during the late 19th and early 20th centuries saw a return to the designs of Renaissance printers and type-founders, many of whose names and designs are still used today.[10] [11] [12]

Old-style type is characterized by a lack of large differences between thick and thin lines (low line contrast) and generally, but less often, by a diagonal stress (the thinnest parts of letters are at an angle rather than at the top and bottom). An old-style font normally has a left-inclining curve axis with weight stress at about 8 and 2 o'clock; serifs are almost always bracketed (they have curves connecting the serif to the stroke); head serifs are often angled.[13]

Old-style faces evolved over time, showing increasing abstraction from what would now be considered handwriting and blackletter characteristics, and often increased delicacy or contrast as printing technique improved.[14] [15] Old-style faces have often sub-divided into 'Venetian' (or 'humanist') and 'Garalde' (or 'Aldine'), a division made on the Vox-ATypI classification system.[16] Nonetheless, some have argued that the difference is excessively abstract, hard to spot except to specialists and implies a clearer separation between styles than originally appeared. Modern typefaces such as Arno and Trinité may fuse both styles.[17]

Early "humanist" roman types were introduced in Italy. Modelled on the script of the period, they tend to feature an "e" in which the cross stroke is angled, not horizontal; an "M" with two-way serifs; and often a relatively dark colour on the page. In modern times, that of Nicolas Jenson has been the most admired, with many revivals.[18] [19] Garaldes, which tend to feature a level cross-stroke on the "e", descend from an influential 1495 font cut by engraver Francesco Griffo for printer Aldus Manutius, which became the inspiration for many typefaces cut in France from the 1530s onwards.[20] Often lighter on the page and made in larger sizes than had been used for roman type before, French Garalde faces rapidly spread throughout Europe from the 1530s to become an international standard.[21] [22]

Also during this period, italic type evolved from a quite separate genre of type, intended for informal uses such as poetry, into taking a secondary role for emphasis. Italics moved from being conceived as separate designs and proportions to being able to be fitted into the same line as roman type with a design complementary to it.[23] [24] [25]

Examples of contemporary Garalde old-style typefaces are Bembo, Garamond, Galliard, Granjon, Goudy Old Style, Minion, Palatino, Renard, Sabon, and Scala. Contemporary typefaces with Venetian old style characteristics include Cloister, Adobe Jenson, the Golden Type, Hightower Text, Centaur, Goudy's Italian Old Style and Berkeley Old Style and ITC Legacy. Several of these blend in Garalde influences to fit modern expectations, especially placing single-sided serifs on the "M"; Cloister is an exception.[26]

Antiqua

See main article: Antiqua (typeface class). Antiqua is a style of typeface used to mimic styles of handwriting or calligraphy common during the 15th and 16th centuries.[27] Letters are designed to flow, and strokes connect together in a continuous fashion; in this way it is often contrasted with Fraktur-style typefaces where the individual strokes are broken apart. The two typefaces were used alongside each other in the germanophone world, with the Antiqua–Fraktur dispute often dividing along ideological or political lines. After the mid-20th century, Fraktur fell out of favor and Antiqua-based typefaces became the official standard in Germany. (In German, the term "Antiqua" refers to serif typefaces.[28])

Dutch taste

A new genre of serif type developed around the 17th century in the Netherlands and Germany that came to be called the "Dutch taste" (French: "goût Hollandois" in French). It was a tendency towards denser, more solid typefaces, often with a high x-height (tall lower-case letters) and a sharp contrast between thick and thin strokes, perhaps influenced by blackletter faces.[29] [30] [31] [32] [33]

Artists in the "Dutch taste" style include Hendrik van den Keere, Nicolaas Briot, Christoffel van Dijck, Miklós Tótfalusi Kis and the Janson and Ehrhardt types based on his work and Caslon, especially the larger sizes.

Transitional

Transitional, or baroque, serif typefaces first became common around the mid-18th century until the start of the 19th.[34] They are in between "old style" and "modern" fonts, thus the name "transitional". Differences between thick and thin lines are more pronounced than they are in old style, but less dramatic than they are in the Didone fonts that followed. Stress is more likely to be vertical, and often the "R" has a curled tail. The ends of many strokes are marked not by blunt or angled serifs but by ball terminals. Transitional faces often have an italic 'h' that opens outwards at bottom right.[35] Because the genre bridges styles, it is difficult to define where the genre starts and ends. Many of the most popular transitional designs are later creations in the same style.

Fonts from the original period of transitional typefaces include early on the French: "[[romain du roi]]" in France, then the work of Pierre Simon Fournier in France, Fleischman and Rosart in the Low Countries,[36] Pradell in Spain and John Baskerville and Bulmer in England.[37] [38] Among more recent designs, Times New Roman (1932), Perpetua, Plantin, Mrs. Eaves, Freight Text, and the earlier "modernised old styles" have been described as transitional in design.

Later 18th-century transitional typefaces in Britain begin to show influences of Didone typefaces from Europe, described below, and the two genres blur, especially in type intended for body text; Bell is an example of this.[39] [40]

Didone

See main article: Didone (typography). Didone, or modern, serif typefaces, which first emerged in the late 18th century, are characterized by extreme contrast between thick and thin lines. These typefaces have a vertical stress and thin serifs with a constant width, with minimal bracketing (constant width). Serifs tend to be very thin, and vertical lines very heavy. Didone fonts are often considered to be less readable than transitional or old-style serif typefaces. Period examples include Bodoni, Didot, and Walbaum. Computer Modern is a popular contemporary example. The very popular Century is a softened version of the same basic design, with reduced contrast.[41] Didone typefaces achieved dominance of printing in the early 19th-century printing before declining in popularity in the second half of the century and especially in the 20th as new designs and revivals of old-style faces emerged.[42] [43] [44]

In print, Didone fonts are often used on high-gloss magazine paper for magazines such as Harper's Bazaar, where the paper retains the detail of their high contrast well, and for whose image a crisp, "European" design of type may be considered appropriate.[45] [46] They are used more often for general-purpose body text, such as book printing, in Europe.[46] [47] They remain popular in the printing of Greek, as the Didot family were among the first to establish a printing press in newly independent Greece.[48] [49] The period of Didone types' greatest popularity coincided with the rapid spread of printed posters and commercial ephemera and the arrival of bold type.[50] [51] As a result, many Didone typefaces are among the earliest designed for "display" use, with an ultra-bold "fat face" style becoming a common sub-genre.[52] [53] [54]

Slab serif

See main article: Slab serif. Slab serif typefaces date to about 1817.[55] Originally intended as attention-grabbing designs for posters, they have very thick serifs, which tend to be as thick as the vertical lines themselves. Slab serif fonts vary considerably: some such as Rockwell have a geometric design with minimal variation in stroke width—they are sometimes described as sans-serif fonts with added serifs. Others such as those of the "Clarendon" model have a structure more like most other serif fonts, though with larger and more obvious serifs.[56] [57] These designs may have bracketed serifs that increase width along their length.

Because of the clear, bold nature of the large serifs, slab serif designs are often used for posters and in small print. Many monospace fonts, on which all characters occupy the same amount of horizontal space as in a typewriter, are slab-serif designs. While not always purely slab-serif designs, many fonts intended for newspaper use have large slab-like serifs for clearer reading on poor-quality paper. Many early slab-serif types, being intended for posters, only come in bold styles with the key differentiation being width, and often have no lower-case letters at all.

Examples of slab-serif typefaces include Clarendon, Rockwell, Archer, Courier, Excelsior, TheSerif, and Zilla Slab. FF Meta Serif and Guardian Egyptian are examples of newspaper and small print-oriented typefaces with some slab-serif characteristics, often most visible in the bold weights. In the late 20th century, the term "humanist slab-serif" has been applied to typefaces such as Chaparral, Caecilia and Tisa, with strong serifs but an outline structure with some influence of old-style serif typefaces.[58] [59] [60]

Other styles

During the 19th century, genres of serif type besides conventional body text faces proliferated.[61] [62] These included "Tuscan" faces, with ornamental, decorative ends to the strokes rather than serifs, and "Latin" or "wedge-serif" faces, with pointed serifs, which were particularly popular in France and other parts of Europe including for signage applications such as business cards or shop fronts.[63]

Well-known typefaces in the "Latin" style include Wide Latin, Copperplate Gothic, Johnston Delf Smith and the more restrained Méridien.

Readability and legibility

Serifed fonts are widely used for body text because they are considered easier to read than sans-serif fonts in print.[64] Colin Wheildon, who conducted scientific studies from 1982 to 1990, found that sans serif fonts created various difficulties for readers that impaired their comprehension.[65] According to Kathleen Tinkel, studies suggest that "most sans serif typefaces may be slightly less legible than most serif faces, but ... the difference can be offset by careful setting".[66]

Sans-serif are considered to be more legible on computer screens. According to Alex Poole,[67] "we should accept that most reasonably designed typefaces in mainstream use will be equally legible". A study suggested that serif fonts are more legible on a screen but are not generally preferred to sans serif fonts.[68] Another study indicated that comprehension times for individual words are slightly faster when written in a sans serif font versus a serif font.[69]

When size of an individual glyph is 9–20 pixels, proportional serifs and some lines of most glyphs of common vector fonts are smaller than individual pixels. Hinting, spatial anti-aliasing, and subpixel rendering allow to render distinguishable serifs even in this case, but their proportions and appearance are off and thickness is close to many lines of the main glyph, strongly altering appearance of the glyph. Consequently, it is sometimes advised to use sans-serif fonts for content meant to be displayed on screens, as they scale better for low resolutions. Indeed, most web pages employ sans-serif type.[70] Recent introduction of desktop displays with 300+ dpi resolution might eventually make this recommendation obsolete.

As serifs originated in inscription, they are generally not used in handwriting. A common exception is the printed capital I, where the addition of serifs distinguishes the character from lowercase L (l). The printed capital J and the numeral 1 are also often handwritten with serifs.

Gallery

Below are some images of serif letterforms across history:

Analogues in other writing systems

East Asia

See main article: Ming (typeface).

In the Chinese and Japanese writing systems, there are common type styles based on the regular script for Chinese characters akin to serif and sans serif fonts in the West. In Mainland China, the most popular category of serifed-like typefaces for body text is called Song (Chinese: 宋体,); in Japan, the most popular serif style is called ; and in Taiwan and Hong Kong, it is called (Chinese: 明體,). The names of these lettering styles come from the Song and Ming dynasties, when block printing flourished in China. Because the wood grain on printing blocks ran horizontally, it was fairly easy to carve horizontal lines with the grain. However, carving vertical or slanted patterns was difficult because those patterns intersect with the grain and break easily. This resulted in a typeface that has thin horizontal strokes and thick vertical strokes. In accordance with Chinese calligraphy (kaiti style in particular), where each horizontal stroke is ended with a dipping motion of the brush, the ending of horizontal strokes are also thickened. These design forces resulted in the current Song typeface characterized by thick vertical strokes contrasted with thin horizontal strokes, triangular ornaments at the end of single horizontal strokes, and overall geometrical regularity.

In Japanese typography, the equivalent of serifs on kanji and kana characters are called —"fish scales". In Chinese, the serifs are called either (Chinese: 有脚体, lit. "forms with legs") or (Chinese: 有衬线体, lit. "forms with ornamental lines").

The other common East Asian style of type is called black (Chinese: 黑体/體,) in Chinese and in Japanese. This group is characterized by lines of even thickness for each stroke, the equivalent of "sans serif". This style, first introduced on newspaper headlines, is commonly used on headings, websites, signs and billboards. A Japanese-language font designed in imitation of western serifs also exists.[71]

Thai

See also: Thai typography. Farang Ses, designed in 1913, was the first Thai typeface to employ thick and thin strokes reflecting old-style serif Latin typefaces, and became extremely popular, with its derivatives widely used into the digital age. (Examples: Angsana UPC, Kinnari)[72]

See also

Lists of serif typefaces

Bibliography

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Phinney. Thomas. Sans Serif: Gothic and Grotesque. Showker. TA. Showker Graphic Arts & Design. 1 February 2013. 19 October 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20121019220449/http://graphic-design.com/typography/design/sans-serif-gothic-and-grotesque. dead.
  2. Book: Samara, Timothy. Typography workbook: a real-world guide to using type in graphic design. 2004. Rockport Publishers. 978-1-59253-081-6. 240. 2020-10-28. 2024-02-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20240209075231/https://books.google.com/books?id=denl7KWyM4EC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  3. Book: Goldberg, Rob. Digital Typography: Practical Advice for Getting the Type You Want When You Want It. 2000. Windsor Professional Information. 978-1-893190-05-4. 264. registration.
  4. Book: The Linotype Bulletin. January–February 1921. 265. 26 October 2011. 9 February 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240209075214/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4bnAAAAMAAJ&q=serif+chisel&pg=PA266-IA7#v=snippet&q=serif%20chisel&f=false. live.
  5. Book: Hansard. Thomas Curson. Typographia, an Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of the Art of Printing. 1825. 370. 12 August 2015.
  6. Etymologisch Woordenboek (Van Dale, 1997).
  7. (Veen, 2001).
  8. Web site: Berry. John. A Neo-Grotesque Heritage. Adobe Systems. 15 October 2015. 16 October 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151016002936/http://acumin.typekit.com/history/. live.
  9. Web site: Olocco. Riccardo. The Venetian origins of roman type. Medium. C-A-S-T. 27 January 2018. 13 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231113230423/https://articles.c-a-s-t.com/the-venetian-origins-of-roman-type-a856eb3f0cb. live.
  10. Mosley. James. Garamond, Griffo and Others: The Price of Celebrity. Bibiologia. 2006. 3 December 2015. 8 December 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151208134351/http://www.libraweb.net/articoli.php?chiave=200608401&rivista=84. live.
  11. Web site: Coles. Stephen. Top Ten Typefaces Used by Book Design Winners. FontFeed (archived). https://web.archive.org/web/20120228035307/http://fontfeed.com/archives/top-ten-typefaces-used-by-book-design-winners/. 2 July 2015. 2012-02-28.
  12. Johnson. A.F.. Alfred F. Johnson. Old-Face Types in the Victorian Age. Monotype Recorder. 1931. 30. 242. 5–15. 14 October 2016. 5 March 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160305105747/http://www.metaltype.co.uk/downloads/mr/mr_30_242.pdf. live.
  13. Web site: Old Style Serif. 2009-06-25. 2009-02-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20090221095647/http://www.fonts.com/FavoriteFonts/OldStyleSerif.htm. live.
  14. Web site: Boardley. John. Unusual fifteenth-century fonts: part 1. i love typography. 7 February 2014. 22 September 2017. 13 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170913081705/http://ilovetypography.com/2014/02/08/unusual-fifteenth-century-fonts/. live.
  15. Web site: Boardley. John. Unusual fifteenth-century fonts: part 2. i love typography. July 2015. 22 September 2017. 30 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170930013956/http://ilovetypography.com/2015/07/01/unusual-fifteenth-century-fonts-part2/. live.
  16. Web site: Type anatomy: Family Classifications of Type. SFCC Graphic Design department. Spokane Falls Community College. 14 August 2015. 7 August 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150807200219/http://graphicdesign.spokanefalls.edu/tutorials/process/type_basics/type_families.htm. dead.
  17. Book: Twardoch, Slimbach, Sousa, Slye. Arno Pro. 2007. Adobe Systems. San Jose. 14 August 2015. 30 August 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140830030331/http://wwwimages.adobe.com/content/dam/Adobe/en/products/type/pdfs/ArnoPro.pdf. dead.
  18. Web site: Olocco. Riccardo. Nicolas Jenson and the success of his roman type. Medium. C-A-S-T. 21 September 2017. 9 February 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240209075216/https://articles.c-a-s-t.com/nicolas-jenson-and-the-success-of-his-roman-type-9f0afeba4103?gi=51c5b3759956. live.
  19. Web site: Boardley. John. The first roman fonts. ilovetypography. 18 April 2016. 21 September 2017. 27 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170927071940/http://ilovetypography.com/2016/04/18/the-first-roman-fonts. live.
  20. Book: Carter. Harry. A View of Early Typography up to about 1600. 1969. Hyphen Press. London. 0-907259-21-9. 72–4. Second edition (2002). De Aetna was decisive in shaping the printers' alphabet. The small letters are very well made to conform with the genuinely antique capitals by emphasis on long straight strokes and fine serifs and to harmonise in curvature with them. The strokes are thinner than those of Jenson and his school...the letters look narrower than Jenson's, but are in fact a little wider because the short ones are bigger, and the effect of narrowness makes the face suitable for octavo pages...this Roman of Aldus is distinguishable from other faces of the time by the level cross-stroke in 'e' and the absence of top serifs from the insides of the vertical strokes of 'M', following the model of Feliciano. We have come to regard his small 'e' as an improvement on previous practice..
  21. Book: Vervliet. Hendrik D.L.. H. D. L. Vervliet. The palaeotypography of the French Renaissance. Selected papers on sixteenth-century typefaces. 2 vols.. 2008. Koninklijke Brill NV. Leiden. 90–91, etc.. [On Robert Estienne's typefaces of the 1530s]

    Its outstanding design became standard for Roman type in the two centuries to follow...From the 1540s onwards French Romans and Italics had begun to infiltrate, probably by way of Lyons, the typography of the neighbouring countries. In Italy, major printers replaced the older, noble but worn Italian characters and their imitations from Basle.

    . 978-90-04-16982-1.
  22. Web site: Bergsland. David. Aldine: the intellectuals begin their assault on font design. The Skilled Workman. 29 August 2012. 14 August 2015. 17 January 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220117063938/https://www.bergsland.org/2012/08/book-production/typography/aldine-the-intellectuals-begin-their-assault-on-font-design/. live.
  23. Web site: Boardley. John. Brief notes on the first italic. i love typography. 25 November 2014. 21 September 2017. 19 October 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171019195111/http://ilovetypography.com/2014/11/25/notes-first-italic. live.
  24. Book: Vervliet, Hendrik D. L.. The Palaeotypography of the French Renaissance: Selected Papers on Sixteenth-century Typefaces. 2008. BRILL. 978-90-04-16982-1. 287–289. 2017-09-21. 2023-11-01. https://web.archive.org/web/20231101004525/https://books.google.com/books?id=6sidSDlif48C&pg=PA287#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  25. Lane. John. John A. Lane. The Types of Nicholas Kis. Journal of the Printing Historical Society. 1983. 47–75. Kis's Amsterdam specimen of c. 1688 is an important example of the increasing tendency to regard a range of roman and italic types as a coherent family, and this may well have been a conscious innovation. But italics were romanised to a greater degree in many earlier handwritten examples and occasional earlier types, and Jean Jannon displayed a full range of matching roman and italic of his own cutting in his 1621 specimen...[In appendix] [György] Haiman notes that this trend is foreshadowed in the specimens of Guyot in the mid-sixteenth century and Berner in 1592..
  26. Web site: Shen. Juliet. Searching for Morris Fuller Benton. Type Culture. 11 April 2017. 11 April 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170411135132/http://typeculture.com/academic-resource/articles-essays/searching-for-morris-fuller-benton/. live.
  27. Book: Eisenstein, Elizabeth. Elizabeth Eisenstein. The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe. registration. 12 September 2005. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-84543-4. 123–163.
  28. Web site: Linotype . Renner Antiqua – Reviving a serif typeface from the designer of Futura . Antiqua is a term used in German to denote serif typefaces, many of them oldstyles (Garamond-Antiqua, Palatino-Antiqua, etc.). The word is used in very much the same way as "roman" [is used] in English-speaking typography to differentiate between upright and italic typefaces in a family..
  29. Book: Updike. Daniel Berkeley. Printing Types: Their History, Forms and Uses: Volume 2. 1922. Harvard University Press. 6–7. 18 December 2015. Chapter 15: Types of the Netherlands, 1500-1800.
  30. Web site: Type History 1. Typofonderie Gazette. 23 December 2015. 23 December 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151223141313/https://typofonderie.com/gazette/post/type-history-1/. live.
  31. Johnson. A. F.. Alfred F. Johnson. The 'Goût Hollandois'. The Library. 1939. s4-XX. 2. 180–196. 10.1093/library/s4-XX.2.180.
  32. Web site: Mosley. James. Type and its Uses, 1455-1830. Institute of English Studies. 7 October 2016. Although types on the 'Aldine' model were widely used in the 17th and 18th centuries, a new variant that was often slightly more condensed in its proportions, and darker and larger on its body, became sufficiently widespread, at least in Northern Europe, to be worth defining as a distinct style and examining separately. Adopting a term used by Fournier le jeune, the style is sometimes called the 'Dutch taste', and sometimes, especially in Germany, 'baroque'. Some names associated with the style are those of Van den Keere, Granjon, Briot, Van Dijck, Kis (maker of the so-called 'Janson' types), and Caslon.. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20161009181144/http://www.ies.sas.ac.uk/sites/default/files/files/LRBS/Outline%20of%20Course_Type%26itsUses2013_2.pdf. 9 October 2016.
  33. Web site: de Jong . Feike . Lane . John A. . The Briot project. Part I . PampaType . TYPO, republished by PampaType . 10 June 2018 . 12 June 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180612144055/https://pampatype.com/blog/the-briot-project . live .
  34. Book: Paul Shaw. Revival Type: Digital Typefaces Inspired by the Past. 18 April 2017. Yale University Press. 978-0-300-21929-6. 85–98. 22 June 2017. 9 February 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240209075213/https://books.google.com/books?id=n7e0DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  35. Morison. Stanley. Type Designs of the Past and Present, Part 3. PM. 1937. 17–81. 4 June 2017. 2017-09-04. https://web.archive.org/web/20170904064848/http://magazines.iaddb.org/issue/PM/1937-11-01/edition/4-3/page/19. dead.
  36. Book: Jan Middendorp. Dutch Type. 2004. 010 Publishers. 978-90-6450-460-0. 27–29.
  37. Corbeto. A.. Eighteenth Century Spanish Type Design. The Library. 25 September 2009. 10. 3. 272–297. 10.1093/library/10.3.272. 161371751.
  38. Unger. Gerard. The types of François-Ambroise Didot and Pierre-Louis Vafflard. A further investigation into the origins of the Didones. Quaerendo. 1 January 2001. 31. 3. 165–191. 10.1163/157006901X00047.
  39. Johnson. Alfred F.. Alfred F. Johnson. The Evolution of the Modern-Face Roman. The Library. 1930. s4-XI. 3. 353–377. 10.1093/library/s4-XI.3.353.
  40. Book: Johnston. Alastair. Transitional Faces: The Lives & Work of Richard Austin, type-cutter, and Richard Turner Austin, wood-engraver. 2014. Poltroon Press. Berkeley. 978-0918395320. 8 February 2017. 11 February 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170211075548/http://www.poltroonpress.com/book/transitional-faces-the-lives-work-of-richard-austin-type-cutter-and-richard-turner-austin-wood-engraver/. live.
  41. Web site: Shaw. Paul. Overlooked Typefaces. Print magazine. 10 February 2011. 2 July 2015. 22 June 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150622135314/http://www.printmag.com/imprint/overlooked-typefaces/. live.
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