| Conflict: | Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878) |
| Partof: | the Great Eastern Crisis |
| Date: | 30 June 1876 – 3 March 1878 |
| Place: | Serbia |
| Result: | Ottoman victory in first stage Serbian victory in second stage
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| Combatant2: |
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| Strength1: | 130,000 with 160 guns |
| Strength2: | 153,000 with 192 guns[1] |
| Casualties1: | First Serbian-Ottoman War 6,000 killed, 9,500 wounded[2] |
| Casualties2: | First Serbian-Ottoman War 1,000+ killed,[4] several thousand wounded[5] |
| Territory: | De jure independence of Serbia from the Ottoman Empire |
The Serbian–Ottoman Wars (Serbian: Српско-османски ратови|Srpsko-osmanski ratovi), also known as the Serbian–Turkish Wars or Serbian Wars for Independence (Serbian: Српски ратови за независност, Srpski ratovi za nezavisnost), were two consequent wars (1876–1877 and 1877–1878), fought between the Principality of Serbia and the Ottoman Empire. In conjunction with the Principality of Montenegro, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 30 June 1876. By the intervention of major European powers, ceasefire was concluded in autumn, and the Constantinople Conference was organized. Peace was signed on 28 February 1877 on the basis of status quo ante bellum. After a brief period of formal peace, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 11 December 1877. Renewed hostilities lasted until February 1878.
At the beginning of the conflict, the Serbian army was poorly trained and ill-equipped, unlike the troops of the Ottoman Empire. The offensive objectives the Serbian army sought to accomplish were overly ambitious for such a force, and they suffered a number of defeats that resulted from poor planning and chronically being spread too thin. This allowed Ottoman forces to repel the initial attacks of the Serbian army and drive them back. During the autumn of 1876, the Ottoman Empire continued their successful offensive which culminated in a victory on the heights above Đunis. During the second conflict, between 13 December 1877 and 5 February 1878, Serbian troops regrouped with help from Imperial Russia, who fought their own Russo-Turkish War. The Serbs formed five corps and attacked Ottoman troops to the south, taking the cities of Niš, Pirot, Leskovac and Vranje one after another. The war coincided with the Bulgarian uprising, the Montenegrin–Ottoman War and the Russo-Turkish War, which together are known as the Great Eastern Crisis of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1875, a revolt of Serbs broke out in Herzegovina, a province of the Ottoman Empire, which soon spread to other regions of the Vilayet of Bosnia, and in the spring of 1876 an uprising of Christian population also broke out in Bulgaria. Although the Ottoman Empire quickly suppressed the revolt in Bulgaria, the fighting in Herzegovina and Bosnia continued to drag on. In the same time, political instability in Turkish capital culminated on 30 May (1876) when sultan Abdülaziz was deposed and replaced with Murad V. Taking advantage of the opportunity, the two semi-independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro opted for independence and declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 18 June 1876.[6]
The main Serbian army under Commander-in-Chief Mikhail Chernyayev, a Russian general, concentrated at the Southern fortress of Aleksinac. It consisted of three Serbian divisions and a variety of volunteer formations totaling about 45,000 men. In the northeast, Milojko Lešjanin based at Zaječar commanded an infantry division (6,000) with cavalry support and the Bulgarian Legion (2,000). In the west there were two weak divisions (3,500 each), one in the southwest at Užice commanded by František Zach and one in the northwest at Šabac commanded by Ranko Alimpić. The main rifle was the Peabody M.1870 which had a performance similar to the M1867 Russian Krnka. Whilst the Peabody was the best weapon available to Serbian troops many had to make do with the erratic M.1867 Serbian Green conversion and other breechloaders, and even muzzleloaders (about 39,000 Russian musket model 1845/63 and 7,000 Belgian rifle model 1849/56). Officers were armed with Francotte Revolver m/1871. Artillery batteries contained a variety of mostly bronze guns almost all inferior to the Ottoman Krupps. There were very few cavalry squadrons reflecting the nature of the terrain and those which existed were poorly equipped. At that time Serbia was accepting all volunteers; there were many volunteers from different countries, including Russians, Bulgarians, Italian followers of Giuseppe Garibaldi and Prussian officers, and also Englishmen, Frenchmen, Greeks, Romanians and Poles. The biggest detachments were those of the Russians and Bulgarians. During the war of 1876–1877, on the initiative of Garibaldi, a detachment was created consisting of several hundreds of Italian volunteers. Russian volunteer detachments formally independent of the Russian state stood up in defense of Serbia. The biggest number of Russian volunteers fought in the Timok-Morava Army, their number reaching around 2,200, out of which there were 650 officers and 300 medical personnel.
The main Ottoman army was based at Sofia under Abdul Kerim with 50,000 men plus irregulars (bashi-bazouk) and Circassians. There was a garrison at the border fortress of Niš commanded by Mehmed Ali with 8,000 men. At Vidin, Osman Nuri had 23,000 men. In the west, in the Sanjak of Bosnia, there were small garrisons at Bijeljina and Zvornik with a larger force (12,000 mostly Egyptians) organized in three infantry regiments under the command of Hosni Rashid Pasha (Egyptian Army) and Dervish Pasha and Mehmed Ali. Substantial numbers of Redif troops were called up for this war mostly armed with former British Sniders. The superior Peabody–Martini was becoming more widely available and was certainly used by the Egyptian troops. Krupp breechloaders are most frequently mentioned although there must have been significant numbers of bronze guns. Ottoman troops performed well during the war albeit badly officered and inadequately supplied.
See main article: First Serbian–Ottoman War. The first phase, known as the First Serbian–Ottoman War (Serbian: Први српско-турски рат/Serbian: Prvi srpsko-turski rat), took place between 30 June 1876 Gregorian (18 June 1876 Julian) and 28 February 1877 Gregorian (16 February 1877 Julian). The Serbian government declared war on the Ottoman Empire on the symbolic Vidovdan (15 June 1876 Julian = 27 June 1876 Gregorian), the anniversary of the Battle of Kosovo (15 June 1389 Julian). The initial Serbian military plan was to defend Niš and attack Sofia with the main army under Chernyayev. Other armies would simultaneously launch diversionary attacks, but these were repulsed in the west. In the north-east, general Milojko Lešjanin was defeated near Kior after failing to hold the Ottoman advance over the Timok river. Although he withdrew to the fortress at Saicar, the Ottoman army captured it on 7 August 1876 Gregorian (26 July 1876 Julian). The Serbian army's main advance in the south appeared to initially meet with success when it moved quickly down the Nišava valley and captured the important heights at Babina Glava, north of Pirot. They were forced to withdraw, however, when the Ottomans responded by sending two columns under Suleiman and Hafiz to flank the Serbian position. General Ranko Alimpić crossed the Drina in July 1876 but was unsuccessful in capturing Bijeljina.[7]
The Ottoman commander Abdul Kerim decided against marching over the difficult mountain terrain between the Timok and Morava rivers and instead concentrated 40,000 troops at Niš and advanced up the easier country of the Morava valley towards Aleksinac. Chernyayev had less than 30,000 men, and unlike the Ottoman commander he stretched them thinly across both sides of the Morava river and into the mountains. Consequently, when contact was made between the two forces, the Serbian troops were overwhelmed by massed Ottoman firepower. A bayonet charge shortly followed and routed the Serbian troops from the field. Thanks to Abdul Kerim's indecisiveness and the arrival of Horvatović's fresh forces, a new Serbian defensive line was created at Djunis.
Following this string of setbacks and defeats, Serbia petitioned the European powers to mediate a diplomatic solution to the war. A joint ultimatum from the European powers forced the Ottoman Empire into accepting a one-month truce with Serbia, during which peace negotiations were held. The Ottoman Empire's peace conditions were deemed by the European powers as too harsh, however, and were rejected.
When the truce expired, the war continued and the new Serbian commander, Horvatović, attacked the Ottoman positions along a broad front from Djunis to Aleksinac on 28 September 1876, but the Ottoman troops repulsed the attacks. The Ottoman forces reorganized and regrouped, and on 19 October 1876 the army of Adyl Pasha launched a surprise attack on the Serbian right which forced the Serbians back to Deligrad.
On 31 October 1876, with the situation becoming dire and Serbian forces about to collapse, Russia mobilized its army and threatened to declare war on the Ottoman Empire if they did not sign a truce with Serbia and renew the peace negotiations within forty-eight hours. These negotiations lasted until 15 January 1877 and effectively ended the fighting between Serbia and the Ottoman Empire until Serbia, having gained financial backing from Russia, again declared war against the Ottoman Empire in 1877.
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The second phase, known as the Second Serbian–Ottoman War (Serbian: Други српско-турски рат/Serbian: Drugi srpsko-turski rat), took place between 13 December 1877 and 5 February 1878. It ended in Serbian victory.
Following the failure of the First Serbian–Ottoman War, there was widespread dissatisfaction in Serbia due to impoverishment, exacerbated by a poor harvest, increased taxes to cover state expenses, and suppression of political freedoms. However, the beginning of the Russo-Turkish War in the spring of 1877 was met with sympathy, and cautious ties with Russia began to form, with Russia advising restraint. When the Russians were halted by the Turks at Pleven in Bulgaria, Russia urged Serbia to join the war, but Serbia was unprepared. Russia provided substantial financial aid, enabling Serbia to mobilize 25,000–30,000 troops along its southeastern borders by late September, strengthening the army's equipment and armaments.
Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 13 December, and Serbian military operations began on 15 December, with three Serbian divisions (Ibar, Morava, and Danube) advancing south to encircle Niš. This operation was successfully executed, and Niš was completely surrounded within five days of combat. To prevent reinforcements from reaching the besieged city from Kosovo, Colonel Lešjanin ordered the Ibar Division to capture Kuršumlija and the strategic points of Samokovo and Prepolac, which cut off the route from Priština-Prokuplje-Niš. Following this order, Colonel Binički's units captured Kuršumlija after two days of fighting on 25 December, but they only managed to approach Samokovo and Prepolac, where they stayed.
Under the influence of Serbian forces and pressured by rebels whose numbers had increased to 6,000, the Turks abandoned Leskovac and retreated south, closing the Grdelica Gorge. The Supreme Command of the Serbian Army, led by Prince Milan, was stationed in Aleksinac from 18 December. While these operations around Niš were ongoing, the Timok and Šumadija Corps, under the general command of General Belimarković, operated southeastward from Pandirala. The Knjaževac Army, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Jevrem Marković, captured the strategic position of Babina Glava on 17 December and the Sveti Nikola pass two days later. After a fierce battle, Bela Palanka was liberated on 24 December. This achievement meant that the Turks could no longer send any reinforcements from Bosnia, Albania, or Kosovo towards Sofia. At that point, a connection between the Serbian and Russian armies was established at Čiprovac. The Russian high command requested the continuation of the Serbian advance to the east.
General Belimarković ordered an attack on Pirot with three columns. Bloody battles were fought on 25 December at the fortified positions of Nišor, but without success. In the following days, Turkish positions were surrounded from several sides, and the Turks, who had strong forces in Pirot (12 battalions), abandoned the city at dawn on 28 December to avoid being completely encircled. After the liberation of Pirot, Serbian units also liberated Kula, Breznik, Trn, and Radomir but were halted at Slivnica on 5 January 1878, upon hearing that the Russians had taken Sofia. After the liberation of Pirot, the Serbian Supreme Command decided to launch a major assault on Niš to destroy its defenses, composed of 5,000 soldiers and 267 cannons stationed at several well-fortified positions, particularly around Vinik Hill to the north and Gornica to the south of Niš. The decision was influenced by news that Hafiz Pasha was advancing from Priština with 10-12,000 troops to aid the besieged Niš. Although Hafiz Pasha managed to push back Serbian forces from Samokovo and recapture Kuršumlija, he could not advance further. For the attack on Niš, the Serbian Supreme Command gathered four divisions of the Šumadija and Morava armies, totaling 15,000 soldiers and 100 cannons. The general assault began on 7 January, with the main attack coming from the southeast. General Jovan Belimarković directed the battle from the command post in the village of Berbatovo. After three days of intense fighting, during which the fortifications at Gornica were captured and Serbian artillery was positioned to threaten the Niš fortress directly, the Turks agreed to negotiate surrender. The commander of Niš, Halil Ziya Pasha, and the city's governor, Rashid Pasha, surrendered the city on 10 January. Their troops left the city without weapons and were sent towards Sofia and partly to Vranje. The troops of the Šumadija Corps ceremoniously entered Niš on 12 January, greeted enthusiastically by the jubilant population. In Niš, 267 cannons, 13,000 rifles, 7,800,000 rifle cartridges, 20,000 artillery shells, and other equipment were seized. Two days later, the Serbian Supreme Command, led by Prince Milan, arrived in Niš.After the capture of Sofia, the Russians no longer required Serbian assistance and cooperation, prompting the Serbian Supreme Command to direct their attack towards Kosovo. It was decided that the Moravian and Timok Corps, under the command of Colonel Lešjanin, would advance through Kuršumlija, Samokov, and Prepolac, or along the Pusta Reka valley and over Gollak towards Priština. Meanwhile, the Šumadija Corps, under the command of General Belimarković, was to move along the South Morava valley and through the Grdelica Gorge towards Vranje, and after its liberation, also turn westward towards Priština.
The execution of this plan began on 19 January, when the Moravian Corps retook Kuršumlija, but was halted and suffered heavy losses in the battles for Samokov from 23 January to 3 February. The Timok Corps captured Bojnik and Lebane, moved towards Priština and to assist the Moravian Corps at Samokov, but on 5 February they received news of an armistice concluded by the Russians with the Turks on 31 January in Edirne.
The Šumadija Corps liberated the entire Grdelica Gorge from 20 to 24 January and reached the outskirts of Vranje. To defend Vranje, the Turks had gathered about 7,000 regular troops, around 3,000 irregulars (bashi-bazouks), 8 cannons, and two squadrons of cavalry. Fierce battles for Vranje were fought on 30 January, leading the Turks to abandon the town during the night of 30/31 January under heavy pressure from the Serbian army. The corps then turned towards Priština, entered Gnjilane on 4 February, and an advance detachment reached Gračanica on 5 February, just as they received news of the armistice from Edirne.
Thus, after six weeks of continuous combat in very harsh winter conditions and challenging mountainous terrain, the Second Serbian–Ottoman War came to an end. The Serbian army demonstrated significantly improved performance compared to the First War, being more experienced, persistent, resilient, and better led, achieving a series of notable military successes. Nonetheless, Serbia suffered significant losses in this war: 2,400 dead and 3,000 wounded.
Final outcome of wars was decided by the Congress of Berlin (1878). Serbia gained international recognition as an independent state, and its territory was expanded.[8]
Many children were orphaned as a result of the Serbo-Turkish Wars. The situation in Serbia was very serious, described by some as "children in huge groups reaching towns". At that time Serbia had underdeveloped social care system. Being aware of all that, 50 most prominent citizens of Belgrade decided to establish the "Society for the bringing up and protection of children", in the Kasina Hotel on Terazije Square, in 1879. In this facility the first vocational school in Serbia was established.[9]
During and after the Serbian–Ottoman War of 1876–1878, between 49,000 and 130,000 Albanians were expelled by the Serbian army from the former Sanjak of Niș to the Turkish Vilayet of Kosovo and Macedonia.[10] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] As a result, Serb civilians in the Kosovo Vilayet were subjected to attacks by some Albanian refugees and Albanian-Ottoman soldiers.[19] [20] [21]