| Shuswap | |
| Pronunciation: | pronounced as /ʃəxwəpməxˈtʃin/ |
| States: | Canada |
| Region: | Central and Southern Interior of British Columbia |
| Ethnicity: | 9,860 Secwepemc (2014, FPCC) |
| Speakers: | 200 |
| Date: | 2014, FPCC |
| Speakers2: | 1,190 semi-speakers |
| Ref: | e18 |
| Familycolor: | American (areal) |
| Fam1: | Salishan |
| Fam2: | Interior Salish |
| Fam3: | Northern |
| Script: | Duployan shorthand (historical) |
| Agency: | Secwepemc Cultural Education Society |
| Iso3: | shs |
| Glotto: | shus1248 |
| Glottorefname: | Shuswap |
| Notice: | IPA |
| Map: | Lang Status 60-DE.svg |
| Root: | Secwépemc (Shuswap) |
| People: | Secwépemc |
| Language: | Secwepemctsín |
| Country: | Secwepemcúl̓ecw |
The Shuswap language (; Secwepemctsín, pronounced as /[ʃəxʷəpəməxˈtʃin]/) is a northern Interior Salish language traditionally spoken by the Shuswap people (Secwépemc, pronounced as /[ʃəˈxʷɛpəməx]/) of British Columbia. An endangered language, Shuswap is spoken mainly in the Central and Southern Interior of British Columbia between the Fraser River and the Rocky Mountains. According to the First Peoples' Cultural Council, 200 people speak Shuswap as a mother tongue, and there are 1,190 semi-speakers.
Shuswap is the northernmost of the Interior Salish languages, which are spoken in Canada and the Pacific Northwest of the United States. There are two dialects of Shuswap:
The other Northern Interior Salish languages are Lillooet and Thompson.
Most of the material in this article is from Kuipers (1974).[1]
Many Indigenous languages, like Secwepemctsín, experienced rapid decline with the institution of the residential schools. These schools prohibited the use of Indigenous languages in speech and in writing, resulting in two to three generations of students who were severely punished for not using English. Although some children forced to attend these residential schools can still speak their mother tongue, they have experienced much trauma which has great negative consequences on the future generations.[2]
After residential schools were shut down, Aboriginal children entered the mainstream schooling system which is dominated by English. Inter-generational transmission of Indigenous languages was severely disrupted due to the dominance of English in education and in the workplace. This further contributed to the drastic decline of Indigenous languages. For example, the number of fluent speakers of Secwepemctsín had dwindled to 3.5 per cent by the mid-1990s.
An interface to Facebook is available in Secwepemctsín.[3] The First Voices website has a Secwepemctsin (Eastern Dialect) Community Portal,[4] a Secwepemc Community Portal,[5] and a Splatsin (Eastern dialect) Community Portal[6] for language learning. A November 2012 article estimated about 150 fluent speakers, mostly over 65, adding that "an estimated 400 students are learning the language, and "the majority of Secwepemctsin learners are under age 19."[7] Secwépemc language applications are available for iOS.[8] The Secwepemc Cultural Education Society released Nintendo DSi software in 2013 that teaches Secwepemctsin to young children.[7] [9] A language authority of ten elder fluent speakers, from East, West, and the North, are recording pronunciation., a language tutor was also in preparation, exportable onto CD for use offline.[10] David Lacho, a University of British Columbia master's student, developed an augmented reality storybook app called Tuwitames, available on the Apple App Store,[11] to help people learn the Splatsin dialect of Secwepemctsín in support of the community's language revitalization initiatives.[12]
A cseyseten (language nest) at Adams Lake is conducted entirely in the Secwepemc language.[13] A language nest program in Secwepemctsín also takes place with the Splatsin Tsm7aksaltn (Splatsin Teaching Centre) Society where the grandmothers (kikia7a) interact with and teach the children.[14] [15] On January 21, 2013, Thompson Rivers University began offering a Secwepemctsín language class taught by fluent speaker Janice Billy.[16]
The Shuswap language has many consonants which the Roman alphabet is typically not used to represent. Two systems of representing Shuswap sounds are in use. One is the system used in Kuipers' 298-page monograph on the language. It uses some letters which are not part of the Roman alphabet. The other system is based on one devised by Randy Bouchard of the British Columbia Language Project.[17] It is based entirely on the Roman alphabet. The one exception is the symbol 7, which is used to represent a glottal stop.
The Bouchard style system appears to be the one in use among Shuswap people themselves. Aside from the different symbols used, other differences exist between the two systems. The Kuipers' system makes extensive use of automatic alternations. For example, the letter n is sometimes pronounced pronounced as /[n]/, sometimes pronounced as /[ən]/, and sometimes pronounced as /[nə]/. The choice of pronunciation is based on automatically applied rules. The reader is expected to know these rules.
The rules cover three classes of changes: (1) automatic darkening of vowels (Non-automatic darkening of vowels is covered under Phonological Processes.), (2) automatic alternation of sonorants between consonantal and vocalic pronunciation, and (3) alternation of plain velars, uvulars, and laryngeals with the corresponding rounded sounds. The Bouchard style system does not appear to require the reader to know so many alternation rules. Examples of words written in the Bouchard style can be seen on two websites.[18] [19] These websites do not contain enough examples to show how all the automatic alternations are handled in the Bouchard style system. Therefore the Kuipers' system of spelling is used in this article.
The Shuswap language has five full vowels, pronounced as //a//, pronounced as //e//, pronounced as //i//, pronounced as //o//, pronounced as //u//, and one reduced vowel, pronounced as //ə//.
| Close | i pronounced as /[i ~ e]/ | u pronounced as /[u ~ o]/ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mid | e pronounced as /[ɛ]/ | ə pronounced as /[ə]/ | o pronounced as /[ɔ]/ | |
| Open | a pronounced as /[a]/ |
An additional vowel, pronounced as //ʌ//, is rare and often replaced by pronounced as //e// or pronounced as //a//. Its description is ambiguous. Kuipers gave its phonetic value as pronounced as /[ʌ]/, indicating a mid unrounded back vowel, but described it in words as a mid central vowel.
There are restrictions on the distribution of vowels. The vowel pronounced as //ə// is restricted to unstressed syllables. The vowels pronounced as //a// and pronounced as //o// also occur in unstressed syllables, but only in a few words. Vowels pronounced as //i// and pronounced as //u// are restricted to stressed syllables.
The previous table shows the normal pronunciation of the vowels. Three of the full vowels, pronounced as //e//, pronounced as //i//, and pronounced as //u//, are subject to an automatic process called darkening, which changes how these vowels are pronounced. Automatic darkening is predictable; it occurs before uvular obstruents and before or after uvularized sonorants. It is not reflected in the Kuipers spelling system.
Example: e pronounced as /[ɛ]/ in 'he shoots it' qemns pronounced as /[ˈqɛmənʃ]/, but e pronounced as /[a]/ in 'I shoot it' qeqmn pronounced as /[ˈqaqmən]/
| Vowel | Normal pronunciation | Darkened pronunciation | |
|---|---|---|---|
| e | pronounced as /[ɛ]/ | pronounced as /[a]/ | |
| i | pronounced as /[i ~ e]/ | pronounced as /[ɪ ~ ɛ]/ | |
| u | pronounced as /[u ~ o]/ | pronounced as /[ɔ]/ |
Consonants are divided into two classes, obstruents and sonorants. In the tables which follow, pronunciations are given in square brackets in IPA transcription. The notation is the same as that of Kuipers (1974).
| Labial | Dental | Alveopalatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plain | Rounded | Plain | Rounded | Plain | Rounded | ||||||
| Nasal | Plain | m pronounced as /[m]/, pronounced as /[əm]/ | n pronounced as /[n]/, pronounced as /[ən]/ | ||||||||
| Glottalized | m’ pronounced as /[mˀ]/, pronounced as /[əmˀ]/ | n’ pronounced as /[nˀ]/, pronounced as /[ənˀ]/ | |||||||||
| Plosives | Plain | p pronounced as /[p]/ | t pronounced as /[t]/ | c pronounced as /[tʃ]/ | k pronounced as /[k]/ | k° pronounced as /[kʷ]/ | q pronounced as /[q]/ | q° pronounced as /[qʷ]/ | |||
| Glottalized | p’ pronounced as /[pˀ]/ | t’ pronounced as /[tɬˀ]/ | c’ pronounced as /[tʃˀ]/ | k’ pronounced as /[kˀ]/ | k’° pronounced as /[kʷˀ]/ | q’ pronounced as /[qˀ]/ | q’° pronounced as /[qʷˀ]/ | pronounced as /ʔ/ pronounced as /[ʔ]/ | |||
| Fricatives | λ pronounced as /[ɬ]/ | s pronounced as /[ʃ]/ | x pronounced as /[x]/ | x° pronounced as /[xʷ]/ | x̌ pronounced as /[χ]/ | x̌° pronounced as /[χʷ]/ | h pronounced as /[h]/ | ||||
| Approximant | Plain | l pronounced as /[l]/, pronounced as /[əl]/ | y pronounced as /[j]/, pronounced as /[iː]/ | ɣ pronounced as /[ɰ]/, pronounced as /[əː]/ | w pronounced as /[w]/, pronounced as /[uː]/ | ʕ pronounced as /[ʕ]/, pronounced as /[aː]/ | ʕ° pronounced as /[ʕʷ]/, pronounced as /[ɔː]/ | ||||
| Glottalized | l’ pronounced as /[lˀ]/, pronounced as /[əlˀ]/ | y’ pronounced as /[jˀ]/, pronounced as /[iʔ]/ | ɣ’ pronounced as /[ɰˀ]/, pronounced as /[əʔ]/ | w’ pronounced as /[wˀ]/, pronounced as /[uʔ]/ | (ʕʼ) pronounced as /[ʕˀ]/, pronounced as /[aʔ]/ | ʕ°’ pronounced as /[ʕʷˀ]/, pronounced as /[ɔʔ]/ | |||||
The variation of sonorants between consonantal and vocalic pronunciations is automatic, and is not indicated in the Kuipers’ spelling system. The rule for determining this as follows:
Example 1: l pronounced as /[l]/, m pronounced as /[m]/ and m pronounced as /[əm]/ in variants of ‘go ahead!’ x̌ílme pronounced as /[ˈχilmɛ]/ and x̌ílmxe pronounced as /[ˈχiləmxɛ]/
Example 2: w pronounced as /[wə]/ in ‘downstream’ wtemtk pronounced as /[wəˈtɛmtk]/
Example 3: l pronounced as /[l]/ and ɣ pronounced as /[əː]/ in ‘waterfall’ k’°əλlɣʔép pronounced as /[kʷʼəɬləːˈʔɛp]/
Example 4: l pronounced as /[l]/, w pronounced as /[u]/, y pronounced as /[j]/ and n pronounced as /[ən]/ in ‘I catch something in a trap’ lélwyn-kn pronounced as /[ˈlɛlujəŋkən]/
Kuipers (1974) uses the alphabet shown in the Phonology section. The Shuswap Language Department uses a different alphabet:[20]
A Shuswap word consists of a stem, to which can be added various affixes. Very few words contain two roots. Any stressed root can have an unstressed alternative, where the vowel is replaced by [ə].
Most roots have the form CVC or CC (the latter only if unstressed). Other roots are CVCC or CCVC.
Suffixes begin either with a stressed vowel (dropped in forms where the root is stressed) or a consonant. Prefixes generally have the form C- or CC-.
Stress in Shuswap is not very prominent, and occurs only in longer words. Since pronounced as /[u]/ and pronounced as /[i]/ are always stressed and pronounced as /[ə]/ never is, stress is usually fairly simple to predict.
Although Kuipers (1974) does not specify, in many cases the glottalized or rounded version of a consonant seems to represent an allophonic variation. For example, consonants which have a rounded form are rounded before and after pronounced as /[u]/. However, glottalization can be contrastive (the root q’ey-, "set up a structure," versus q’ey’-, "write") or allophonic (the root q’ey- appears with a glottalized final consonant in s-t-q‘ey’-qn, "shed"). Consonant reduplication can also have an effect on glottalization.
There are a number of ways in which sounds are affected by their environments. Resonants in the vocalic position are preceded by an automatic schwa, for example the word pronounced as //stʼmkelt// ("daughter"), pronounced pronounced as /[stɬʼ'''ə'''mkelt]/. The darkening of vowels, as described below, is another case.
The distribution of vowels is quite complex. The vowels have the following main variants:
pronounced as //a// and pronounced as //ʌ// are unchanged. The environment around uvulars and velars produces a different set of variants, including occasional slight diphthongs. Additionally, some roots cause darkened vowels to appear in suffixes; one example is the prefix -ekst ("hand, arm"), which is darkened in x°əl’-akst. The darkened vowels are as follows:
Shuswap's affixation system is robust. A nominalizing prefix s- is used to derive nouns from verbs, and prefixes to indicate a resulting state are added to verbs. A sample of Shuswap's small number of prefixes is below:
Most nouns contain suffixes. Suffixes are also used to indicate transitive, intransitive, and imperative verbs. Below are a few examples taken from the extensive collection of Shuswap suffixes:
Shuswap makes extensive use of reduplication. Some examples of simple reduplication are:
In addition, there are several types of complex reduplication, involving patterns such as 11V12, 112V23, and 1123V34 (where 1 represents C1, etc.).
Not all types of reduplication are productive and functional. Total reduplication indicates plurality and consonant reduplication is diminutive, but most other reduplications are difficult to explain.
In addition to reduplication, root morphemes can be modified by interior glottalization, such that a root CVC appears as CʔVC. Although the process is not productive, many recorded forms refer to a state, for example [pʔeɣ] (cooled off) from [peɣns] (he cools it off). Consonant reduplication can proceed as usual with interior glottalization.
Word order in Shuswap is relatively free; syntactical relationships are easily conveyed by the case marking system. However, it is common but not necessary for the predicate to head the sentence.
Sentences with predicate first:
Sentences with subject first (rare):
Shuswap uses two cases: the absolutive, for the subject of an intransitive verb, the subject of a transitive verb, and the object of a transitive verb; and the relative, for all other cases (for example, the actor of a passive verb, or an adverb).
Absolutive Case:
Relative Case:
Nouns and verbs appear in for different forms, depending on their syntactic surroundings.
The following is a list of roots (listed separately or as their simplest derivatives), and a selection of words derived from these roots by affixes.
| Root | Derivative | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| c-pet | spread out | |
| x-pət-min’ | covering around something | |
| x-pət-cin’-tn | skin door-covering | |
| ptek | pass by | |
| x-ptetk-tn | finish line | |
| x-ptək-ew’s | to cross a road | |
| tʔik° | fire | |
| tətʔiʔk°-m | to glow / be red hot | |
| tik°-n’k-tn | a fungus that was used in making fire | |
| ciq° | red | |
| cəq°-cin-tn | lipstick | |
| cəq°-cq°eq°sxn’ | penny | |
| q°el | to speak, talk | |
| c-q°l-nt-es | to call, summon | |
| q°l-t-əmiʔ | talkative | |
| yew | scoop up | |
| x-yew-m | to fetch water | |
| x-yew’-mn | fishing spot, bucket | |
| s-q°ex-t | wild man, bugbear | |
| t-q°əx-q°əx-n’t-es | to frighten people by spooky behavior | |
| q°ex-s-n-s | to tell somebody about mysterious sight or experience | |
The word kokanee, a type of salmon, comes from Shuswap.[21]
