Saraswat Brahmin Explained

Saraswat Brahmins are spread over widely separated regions spanning from Kashmir and Punjab in North India to Konkan in West India to Kanara (coastal region of Karnataka) and Kerala in South India. In places such as western and southern India, the claim of Brahminhood of some communities who claim to be Saraswat Brahmins is disputed. The word Saraswat is derived from the Rigvedic Sarasvati River.[1]

Classification

Saraswats Brahmins are classified under the Pancha Gauda Brahmin classification of the Brahmin community in India.[1]

In Western and South India, along with the Chitpavan, Karhades (including Padhyes, Bhatt Prabhus), and Konkani-speaking Saraswat Brahmins are referred to as Konkani Brahmins, which denotes those Brahmin sub-castes of the Konkan coast which have a regional significance in Maharashtra and Goa.[2]

Based on Veda and Vedanta

In Karnataka and Kerala, Majority of Gaud Saraswat Brahmins are followers of Madhvacharya, while the Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins are Smarthas, followers of Adi Shankara.[3] [4] [5] Writer Chandrakant Keni and former I.C.S officer V. N. Kudva says, "The majority of the Saraswats, including those in Goa, are now Vaishnavas".[6] [7] [8]

Origin

The Saraswat Brahmins originating in Balochistan were called sindhur and were considered a low caste. They have a legend of origin related to Lord Ramachandra (not the same as Parashurama), who could not find a priest in Balochistan and applied a Tilaka on the head of some Mleccha. Jürgen Schaflechner cites the historian Rowe who states that such "low ranking Brahmins" formed a symbiotic relationship with Vaishya castes such as Khatris, Lohanas, etc. who were trying to raise their varna status - which in turn would benefit the Saraswats as well. For this purpose, certain religious texts were written during the British Raj era.[9]

Saraswats of western India claim to be part of the Saraswat brahmin community of the north based on the Sahyadri Khanda of Skanda Purana. As per the Purana, Parshurama brought Saraswats to Konkan. However, Sanskrit scholar Madhav Deshpande, Indologist and Sanskrit Scholar Stephan Hillyer Levitt and historian O'Hanlon consider the portion of the Sahyādrikhaṇḍa that describes Saraswats to be corrupted and recently interpolated by Saraswats themselves in order to improve their status.[10] [11]

The southward migration of Saraswat Brahmins is explained in the Skanda Purana. The Sayhadrikhand of Skandapurana narrates the founding myths of various Brahmin communities.In the text, Shiva narrates the following founding myths to Skanda:Parshurama brought Sarasvatas from Tirhut to Konkan, settling them in the villages of Kelosi and Kusasthal. These settlers were "attractive, well-behaved, and skilled in every rite". The deities Shantadurga, Mangesh, Mhalsa, Nagesh and Mahalakshmi accompanied them to Konkan.

Scholarly interpretation

According to Rosalind O'Hanlon, the core of the text was likely written around the end of the 1st millennium, it contains stories about Brahmin village settlements that have fallen from virtue. The remaining text appears to have been written later, as it describes the Pancha Gauda and Pancha Dravida classification of Brahmins, which became popular during the 13th-14th centuries.

History

Migration

Saraswats were spread over a wide area in northern part of the Indian subcontinent. One group lived in coastal Sindh and Gujarat, this group migrated to Bombay State after the partition of India in 1947. One group was found in pre-partition Punjab and Kashmir, these also have tended to migrate away from the part of Punjab located in Pakistan after 1947. Another branch known as Dakshinatraya Saraswat Brahmin are now found along the western coast of India.[12] [13]

Philosophy and literature

Saraswats have contributed to the fields of Sanskrit, Konkani, Marathi and Kannada literature and philosophy. All the mathadhipathis of Kashi Math, Gokarna Math, Kavale Math and Chitrapur Math without a single exception are from the Saraswat Brahmin community. The 17th-century Madhva Saraswat scholar, Sagara Ramacharya, authored the Konkanabhyudhaya.

Advaita saints such as Gaudapada, grand-teacher of the philosopher Shankaracharya;[14] Narayana Tirtha, the first peetadhipathi of Gokarna Math and Yadavendra Tirtha, the first peetadhipathi of Kashi Math, are some of the prominent saints from the Saraswat Brahmin community.

Society and culture

Northern India

Kashmir

In Kalhana's Rajatarangini (12th century CE), the Saraswats are mentioned as one of the five Pancha Gauda Brahmin communities residing to the north of the Vindhyas.[1]

According to M. K. Kaw (2001), Kashmiri Pandits, a part of the larger Saraswat Brahmin community hold the highest social status in Kashmir.[15] Based on the calendar used, they divided into two groups-Malmasi (who remained in the valley despite religious persecution) and Banmasi (who are said to have immigrated or re-immigrated under King Zain ul Abidin in the fifteenth century) The former follow the lunar calendar while latter who are in the majority follow the solar calendar.[16] [17] Walter Lawrence states that the Kashmiri Pandit community to be divided into the following classes - the Jotish (astrologer), the priestly class Guru or Bachabat and the Karkun (working class) that was employed in government service. Philosophers like Sureśvara, the first peetadhipathi of Sringeri Sharada Peetham, Mandana Mishra, were Kashmiri Saraswat Brahmins.[14] and Parijnanashram I, was the first peetadhipathi of Chitrapur Math.

Punjab and Sindh

Mohyal Brahmins are a sub-caste of Saraswat Brahmins from the Punjab region, who are sometimes referred to as 'Warrior Brahmins'.[18] [19] Mohyal Brahmins stopped practising priestly duties.[20]

A small minority of Mohyals also have an association with Shia Muslims because they helped Imam Hussain in the Battle of Karbala, these Mohyal Brahmnins are called Hussaini Brahmins.[21] [22] [23]

Eastern India

In Gangetic belt mainly in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Saraswat Brahmins were landlords and priests. They follow Shakta tradition, Vaishnavism and Shaivism.[24]

Western and Southern India

Here the Saraswat Brahmins are divided into three sub-groups, they are, Gaud Saraswat Brahmins, Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins. Vaishnavas among them are followers of Kashi Math and Gokarna Math, while the Smarthas are followers of Kavale Math and Chitrapur Math.[25]

Western India

The majority of Saraswats speak Konkani, one of the languages of the Indo-Aryan language family. The major dialects of Konkani used by Saraswats are Goan Konkani, Maharashtrian Konkani and Canarese Konkani.

Historian Sanjay Subrahmanyam states that Saraswats at "Basrur on the Kanara coast south of Goa" were a "caste of open status", which sometimes claimed to be Brahmins although they were associated with mercantile activity and called as "Chatins" from Chetti by the Portuguese. Moroccan explorer Ibn Battuta had also visited Basrur, which was considered "the great center of Saraswat trade", two centuries earlier than the Portuguese, but it did not interest him as much as it did the Portuguese.[26] Chatins de Barcelor was the term used for the Saraswat community of merchants at Basrur in the time of Diogo do Couto, but the term Chatin acquired a pejorative meaning later. It is likely derived from the Tamil 'Chati', which is a suffix for many trading castes that were present on the southern side of the Godavari river.[27]

The Saraswats and Gujarati Vanias in Goa, were involved not only in trade but also in tax related income. After the 1540s discrimination against non-Christians in Goa increased and there were mass conversions to Christianity. Despite this, between 1600 and 1670, about 80% of the tax farms or rendas were held by the Hindus, especially Saraswats. The prominent Saraswat merchants mentioned at this time, that is, early 1600s are Govinda, Pondya as well as the Kini and Nayaks. The rendas were on various items such as spices(pepper), cotton and silk cloths, food shops and duties on gold. Michael Pearson has given an example of members and relatives of a Saraswat Naik family to show that when a person successfully did a bidding for a renda from the government, he had to name some guarantors - who were usually his relatives or caste members.[28] [29]

The Saraswats also traded at the Vengurla and Raybag ports and acted as suppliers of rice and pepper that they imported from Kanara. In this context, they also dealt with the Dutch who has established a factory in the port of Vengurla. Scholars mention a certain P. Nayak who was a notable merchant in the 1670s.[30]

Saraswat merchant families during the Portuguese rule of Goa also were involved in trade with Portuguese colonies around the globe including in the African slave trade.[31] [32] In the 19th century also, French slave merchants came to Goa and contacted the Portuguese and Saraswat Brahmins who sold them African slaves.[33]

In Konkan, the Saraswat as well as the fishermen communities were traditionally traders as well as sailors. The reason for seafaring was that the land of Konkan suffered due to salinisation and unpredictable rains. This caused the Saraswats to look for livelihood outside of Konkan and they would often use the Arabian Sea for travelling for trade. Dabhol was the main Konkan port in 1600 to Hormutz and the traders traded with Socotra and Yemen but by 1700 Dabhol was ruined due to silting and sandbanks. Moreover, the cities with which the trading occurred had also declined.[34]

During Shivaji's coronation, the ritual status of the Saraswats to be Brahmins was supported by Gaga Bhatt, a leading Brahmin from Benares.[35]

Historically, in Maharashtra, Saraswats had served as low and medium level administrators under the Deccan Sultanates for generations. In the 18th century, the quasi-independent Shinde and the Holkar rulers of Malwa recruited Saraswats to fill their administrative positions. This made them wealthy holder of rights both in Maharashtra and Malwa during the eighteenth century. During the same period in Peshwa ruled areas, there was a continuation of filling of small number of administration post by the Saraswats.[36] During the rule of the Chitpavan Brahmin Peshwas in the 18th century, Saraswat Brahmins was one of the communities against whom the Chitpavans conducted a social war which led to Gramanya (inter-caste dispute).[37]

After the liberation of Goa from the Portuguese colonial rule in 1961, many Goan Saraswats opposed merger of Goa into Maharashtra.[38]

The 19th century Konkani scholar Shenoi Goembab,and the 20th century multi-faceted Marathi scholar Purushottam Laxman Deshpande are some of the prominent scholars from the Saraswat Brahmin community.[39] [40]

Southern India

According to Nagendra Rao, the trading communities of Saraswats, Jews, Arabs, Komatis, Nawayath, etc. were active in south Kanara when the Portuguese arrived for trading in the 1500s. The items of trade were rice, pepper, ginger, etc. International trade already existed at the time in South Kanara and business existed with Malabar, Maldives, ports of the Red Sea.[41] In Mangalore, Saraswats were part of the trading community when the Portuguese arrived to import saltpetre. The items from Mangalore were exported to Malabar, Goa, Surat, Bengal, Malacca, Maldives, Mecca, Aden, Congo, Hormuz and Ceylon.[42]

Studies show that between 1500 and 1650, in Kanara, Saraswats and Nawayath were dominant in commerce with ports outside India but it was Mappila Muslims and Middle Eastern Muslims who dominated in Malabar.[43]

The rulers in India encouraged Tobacco production from the mid-1600s because chewing, smoking and sniffing Tobacco gathered momentum in India. The Dutch extended cultivation in Kerala. Some towns in Kerala received support from the King of Cochin for tobacco cultivation. Here, the Saraswat Brahmin merchants such as Nayak, Kamat, etc. took up tobacco farming in the latter half of the seventeenth century and this resulted in major income for the King of Cochin.[44]

According to some socialists due to the pescatarian diet of saraswats the claim of satkarmi brahminhood of saraswats was contested by local Brahmins but majority of saraswat Brahmins were Vegetarians, this was discussed during the coronation of shivaji where Gagabhatt gave verdict in favour of saraswat Brahmins,further during British era this matter reached court which resulted in court declaring saraswat Brahmins as Satkarmi Brahmins[7] [5] [45] Sociologist and researcher Ramesh Bairy writes that "Saraswat claim to Brahminhood is still strongly under dispute, particularly in the coastal districts of Karnataka".[46]

According to the sociologist, Gopa Sabharwal (2006), in Belgaum, Karnataka,[47] "marriages between Saraswat and non-Saraswat Brahmins are on the increase though they were unheard of before, mainly because the Saraswats eat fish and occasionally meat, while all other Brahmins are vegetarians".[48] According to sociologist Ramesh Bairy, even in 2010, in Karnataka, "at the level of the community as a whole, Brahmins may not be incensed at the Saraswat claim to Brahminhood. But a non-Saraswat Brahmin will not be keen on proposing marriage with a Saraswat family".[49]

Marriages

The Saraswat Brahmins are divided into various territorial endogamous groups, who did not intermarry.[50]

Diet

See main article: Saraswat cuisine.

Kashmir valley

Kashmiri Pandits eat mutton and fish, but obey restrictions laid down by the shastras of not eating the meat of forbidden animals.[16] Professor Frederick J. Simoons says according to some reports, Saraswat Brahmins from northern India also consume fish as part of their diet.[51] [52] [53]

Maharashtra and Goa

In Goa and Konkan region, Saraswat Brahmins have both vegetarians and pescetarians among them,[54] [55] [56] while in Maharashtra they are pescetarians.[57]

Gujarat

In Gujarat, Saraswat Brahmins are pure vegetarians and do not even consume masur dal and garlic. They chiefly live on Bajri (millet), wheat roti (unleavened bread) with rice during lunch,and Khichdi (a mixture of rice and pulse) in the Dinner.[58]

Southern India

In Karnataka, Saraswat Brahmins are mainly concentrated in the coastal Kanara region. The sub-groups among Saraswats are Gaud Saraswat Brahmins, Chitrapur Saraswat Brahmins and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins are largely vegetarians. In Kerala, Rajapur Saraswat Brahmins and Gaud Saraswat Brahmins are chiefly vegetarians, but there are also pescetarians among them.[59] [60]

Notable people

See main article: List of Saraswat Brahmins.

See also

References

Bibliography

Notes and References

  1. Book: Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities . . Pearson Education India . 2011 . 978-81-317-5439-9 . 168 .
  2. Book: Aryans in South India. 78. P. P. Nārāyanan Nambūdiri. Inter-India Publications. 1992. 978-81-210-0266-0.
  3. Book: South Indians in Kolkata: History of Kannadigas, Konkanis, Malayalees, Tamilians, Telugus, South Indian Dishes, and Tippoo Sultan's Heirs in Calcutta. 93. P. Thankappan Nair. Punthi Pustak. 2004. 978-81-86791-50-9. As a result of this, the Saraswats living in the south of the Gangavali in North Kanara separated into what is known as the Gowda Saraswat community consisting mostly of Vaishnavas and Chitrapur Saraswats, mostly of Smarthas..
  4. Book: Karnataka State Gazetteer: South Kanara. 111. Director of Print., Stationery and Publications at the Government Press. 1973. The Gauda Saraswats are the Madhva Vaishnavite Saraswat Brahmins, while the Saraswats [Chitrapur] have continued to be Smarthas..
  5. Book: Karnataka State: Udupi District. S. Anees Siraj. Government of Karnataka, Karnataka Gazetteer Department. 2012. 189.
  6. Book: Saraswats in Goa and Beyond. Chandrakant Keni. Murgaon Mutt Sankul Samiti. 1998. 62. The majority of the Saraswats, including those in Goa, are now Vaishnavas.
  7. Book: The Illustrated Weekly of India, Volume 91, Part 2. Published for the proprietors, Bennett, Coleman & Company, Limited, at the Times of India Press. 1970. 63. The Saraswats are largely a vegetarian community, whose coconut- based cuisine is famed for its variety..
  8. Book: History of the Dakshinatya Saraswats. 154. Venkataraya Narayan Kudva. Samyukta Gowda Saraswata Sabha. 1972. The majority of the Saraswats, including those in Goa, are now Vaishnavas. Nearly the whole of the prosperous trading community on the West Coast are now Madhvas..
  9. Book: Jürgen Schaflechner . 2018 . Hinglaj Devi: Identity, Change, and Solidification at a Hindu Temple in Pakistan . Oxford University Press . 59–60 . 978-0-19-085052-4 .
  10. Levitt S. H.. 2017. Reflections on the Sahyādrikhaṇḍa's Uttarārdha. Studia Orientalia Electronica . 5. 151–161. 10.23993/store.65156. free . 2323-5209 .
  11. Deshpande, M.M.. 2010. Pañca Gauḍa and Pañca Drāviḍa: Contested borders of a traditional classification. Studia Orientalia: 108. 45. The Deśasthas, Citpāvans and Karhāḍes were united in their rejection of the brahminhood for the Sārasvatas, and Wagle himself provides evidence of this animosity. See Wagle 1970b: 318–319 for court cases filed by different brahmins against the Sārasvatas in 1788 ad, 1850 ad and 1864 ad. Also see Bambardekar 1939 and Conlon 1977: 39ff.
  12. Book: The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z . registration . James G. Lochtefeld . Rosen . 2002 . 978-0-8239-3180-4 . 490–491.
  13. Dakshinatya Sarasvats: Tale of an Enterprising Community, page 6
  14. Book: South Indians in Kolkata: History of Kannadigas, Konkanis, Malayalees, Tamilians, Telugus, South Indian Dishes, and Tippoo Sultan's Heirs in Calcutta. P. Thankappan Nair. Punthi Pustak. 2004. 93. 978-81-86791-50-9. Remembering that some of his predecessors like Sureshvaracharya (the famous Mandana Misra, the successor of Sankaracharya on the Sringeri Sharada Pitha) were Kashmiri Saraswats, the Jagadguru readily gave them a letter in which ....
  15. Book: M K, KAW. Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future. APH Publications. 2017. 32–33. 978-81-7648-236-3.
  16. Web site: . THE BRAHMINS OF KASHMIR . Michael Witzel . September 1991 . 25 January 2021.
  17. Dhingra . Rajni . Arora . Vaishali . At the Cross Roads: Families in Distress . Journal of Human Ecology . March 2005 . 17 . 3 . 217–222 . 10.1080/09709274.2005.11905784 . 54701622 . 25 January 2021.
  18. Book: Hanks, Patrick . Dictionary of American Family Names: 3-Volume Set . 8 May 2003 . Oxford University Press, USA . 978-0-19-508137-4 . 605 . en.
  19. Book: McLeod, W. H.. Who is a Sikh?: the problem of Sikh identity. 1989. Clarendon Press. 0-19-826548-4. Oxford. 19125681.
  20. Web site: 31 January 2012 . Country Advice: India . 20 March 2022 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220107153948/https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/1305628/1226_1374670688_ind39846.pdf . 7 January 2022 . . en .
  21. Book: Rath, Akshaya K. . Secret Writings of Hoshang Merchant . 7 July 2016 . Oxford University Press . 978-0-19-908961-1 . en.
  22. News: 30 September 2019 . Datta . Nonica . The Forgotten History of Hussaini Brahmins and Muharram in Amritsar . live . 1 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201101130440if_/https://thewire.in/religion/the-forgotten-history-of-hussaini-brahmins-and-muharram-in-amritsar . 1 November 2020 . . en .
  23. News: 31 December 2017 . Sheikh . Majid . Spiritual connect of two villages on both sides of the divide . live . 1 August 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180101100115/https://www.dawn.com/news/1379906 . 1 January 2018 . . en .
  24. Book: S.Garjani . 2004. History religion and culture of India. Isha Books . 36 . 81-8205-063-4 .
  25. Book: Saraswats in Goa and Beyond. Murgaon Mutt Sankul Samiti. 1998. 10.
  26. Book: Sanjay Subrahmanyam. The Career and Legend of Vasco Da Gama. 29 October 1998. Cambridge University Press. 978-0-521-64629-1. 108–. An important and relatively little-known example of a sort of 'merchant republic' form, in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries can be found at Basrur, on the Kanara coast south of Goa. The dominant trading community here were Saraswats, a caste of open status, which at times claimed Brahminhood but more usually was identified with mercantile activity (the Portuguese usually term them chatins, from chetti).
  27. Book: Anthony Disney . 25 July 2019 . Historiography of Europeans in Africa and Asia, 1450–1800 . Routledge . 244– . 978-1-351-93068-0 .
  28. Book: Sanjay Subrahmanyam . 7 March 2012 . The Portuguese Empire in Asia, 1500-1700: A Political and Economic History . John Wiley & Sons . 978-1-118-27402-6 .
  29. Book: Michael Naylor Pearson . 1981 . Coastal Western India: Studies from the Portuguese Records . Concept Publishing Company . 101– . 978-81-7022-160-9 .
  30. Book: Sinnappah Arasaratnam . Holden Furber . Kenneth McPherson . 2004 . Maritime India . Oxford University Press . 199 . 978-0-19-566428-7 . When the Dutch established a factory in the port of Wingurla, they dealt with a number of Hindu merchant suppliers of the neighbourhood . Hindu merchants, Konkanis and Saraswats, were located southwards in the Kanarese ports and Goa . They traded in the Bijapur ports of Wingurla and Raybag, being the major suppliers there of pepper and rice which they brought from Kanara . A prominent merchant of the 1670s with extensive dealings with the Nayak was Polpot Nayak..
  31. de Souza, Teotonio R. "MHAMAI HOUSE RECORDS INDIGENOUS SOURCES FOR 'INDO'-PORTUGUESE HISTORIOGRAPHY." Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 41, 1980, pp. 435–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44141866. Accessed 2 September 2022.
  32. RUSSELL-WOOD, A. J. R. "An Asian Presence in the Atlantic Bullion Carrying Trade, 1710-50." Portuguese Studies, vol. 17, 2001, pp. 148–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41105165. Accessed 2 September 2022.
  33. Book: Pedro Machado . 6 November 2014 . Ocean of Trade . Cambridge University Press . 253– . 978-1-107-07026-4 .
  34. Book: Rene J. Barendse . 8 July 2016 . The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century . Routledge . 64 . 978-1-317-45835-7 . The Saraswat Brahmin communities and the fishermen have traditionally been heavily involved in trade and seafaring, for this was a poor land: the soil was threatened by salinization, the harvest by the erratic rains..
  35. Book: Manu S Pillai. Rebel Sultans: The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji. 2018. Juggernaut Books. 978-93-86228-73-4. 279–.
  36. Book: Gordon, Stewart. The Marathas 1600-1818, Volume 2. Cambridge university press. 2017. 130–145. 978-0-521-03316-9.
  37. Book: Gokhale, Sandhya. The Chitpwans . Shubhi Publications. 2008. 204. The jati disputes were not a rare occurrence in Maharashtra. There are recorded instances of disputes between jatis such as Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Pathare Prabhus and the Chitpawans, Saraswats and the Chitpawans and Shukla Yajurvedi and the Chitpawans. These intra-caste dispute involving the supposed violation of the Brahmanical ritual code of behavior was called Gramanya in marathi..
  38. Book: Goa Indica: A Critical Portrait of Postcolonial Goa. Arun Sinha. Bibliophile South Asia. 6 July 2019. 50. 81-85002-31-2. 2002.
  39. Book: Goa. 176. Olivinho Gomes. National Book Trust, India. 2004. 978-81-237-4139-0. Shennoy Goembab, the great Konkani writer and scholar, himself a Saraswat Brahmin by caste,.
  40. Economic and Political Weekly. Economic and Political Weekly . 14 . 1519. Deshpande a college graduate from a progressive Gaud Saraswat Brahmin community... Sameeksha Trust. 1979.
  41. Book: The Portuguese, Indian Ocean, and European Bridgeheads, 1500-1800. Nagendra Rao. Pius Malekandathil. T. Jamal Mohammed. 305. The Portuguese were first European traders to arrive at the ports of South Kanara. On the eve of the arrival of the Portuguese, South Kanara large number of major and minor ports. There existed trade with Malabar, Maldives and ports of the Red Sea. There also existed the trading communities like the Arabs, Jews, Saraswats, Telugu Komatis, Navayats and others. International trade was not new to the traders of South Kanara. The traders dealt with commodities like rice, pepper, ginger and other spices. The arrival of Portuguese helped in enhancing the volume of trade in the ports of South Kanara.. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR. 2001.
  42. Book: The Portuguese, Indian Ocean, and European Bridgeheads, 1500-1800. Nagendra Rao. Pius Malekandathil. T. Jamal Mohammed. 310. In 1632, the agent of the Portuguese sent their men to Mangalore to procure saltpetre from Mangalore. The trading community of Mangalore consisted of Muslims, Saraswats, Komatis, Virashaiva traders of Karnataka,Christians, Gujaratis, traders from Kerala and foreign traders belonging to Red Sea ports. According to the Livro do Cartazes,during the period from 1705 to 1724 about 8600 khandis were exported to different markets. The destinations of Mangalore trade were Malabar, Goa, Surat, Bengal, Malacca, Maldives,Mecca, Aden, Congo, Hormuz and Ceylon. Institute for Research in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR. 2001.
  43. Book: Sanjay Subrahmanyam . 18 July 2002 . The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India 1500-1650 . Cambridge University Press . 337– . 978-0-521-89226-1 . the period from 1500 to 1650, one finds certain communities which appear to dominate external commerce : Mappilas and a heterogenous group of Middle Eastern Muslims in Malabar, Saraswats and Navayat Muslims in the Kanara region.
  44. Book: Pius Malekandathil . 13 September 2016 . The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India . Taylor & Francis . 36– . 978-1-351-99746-1 .
  45. Book: Dennis Kurzon. Where East Looks West: Success in English in Goa and on the Konkan Coast. 2004. Multilingual Matters. 978-1-85359-673-5. 74–. Saraswatis claim that they come from the Brahmin caste – hence their name - but others believe that they are usurpers using some fake brahmin ancestry to maintain their superiority..
  46. Book: Ramesh Bairy. Being Brahmin, Being Modern: Exploring the Lives of Caste Today. 11 January 2013. Routledge. 978-1-136-19820-5. 193–. Saraswat claim to Brahminhood is still strongly under dispute, particularly in the coastal districts of Karnataka..
  47. Web site: Department Of Sociology:Dr. Gopa Sabharwal. 28 December 2019.
  48. Book: Ethnicity and Class: Social Divisions in an Indian City. Gopa Sabharwal. Oxford University Press. 2006. 131. 978-0-19-567830-7. In fact, marriages between Saraswat and non-Saraswat Brahmins are on the increase though they were unheard of before, mainly because the Saraswats eat fish and occasionally meat, while all other Brahmins are vegetarians..
  49. Book: Being Brahmin, Being Modern: Exploring the Lives of Caste Today. Ramesh Bairy. Routledge. 11 January 2013. 978-1-136-19819-9. 11 January 2013.
  50. Book: India's Communities, Volume 6. Kumar Suresh Singh. Oxford University Press. 1998. 3175. The Saraswat Brahman are an ancient and a dynamic community of India, spread from Kashmir to Konkan. They are divided into various territorial endogamous groups, who at one time did not intermarry..
  51. Book: Eat Not this Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present. Frederick J. Simoons. University of Wisconsin Press. 1994. 284. 978-0-299-14250-6. There are even reports of certain Brahmin (Bengali Brahmins, Oriya Brahmins, Brahmins of certain parts of Bihar, Saraswat Brahmins of northern India, and Kashmiri Pandits) eating fish..
  52. Book: Kaw . M. K. . Kashmiri Pandits: Looking to the Future . 2001 . APH Publishing . 978-81-7648-236-3 . 7 April 2019 . en.
  53. Web site: Forward castes must think forward as well . Hindustan Times . 18 March 2019 . 23 November 2014.
  54. Book: Maria Couto. Goa: A Daughter's Story. 2005. Penguin Books India. 978-0-14-303343-1. 4.
  55. Book: Understanding Society: Readings in the Social Sciences. Macmillan International Higher Education. 4 March 2019. 273. 978-1-349-15392-3. October 1970.
  56. Book: Goa Re-discovered. 53. Anant Kakba Priolkar. Bhatkal Books International. 1967. Saraswats are mainly vegetarians but are permitted to eat fish..
  57. Book: Indian Journal of Social Research, Volume 29. G. C. Hallen. 4. 1988. In Maharashtra among most Brahmin castes non-vegetarian food is taboo but the Saraswat Brahmins eat fish..
  58. Book: Kumar Suresh Singh . India's Communities: N -Z . Oxford University Press . 1998 . 978-0-19-563354-2 . 3178.
  59. Book: Survey of Konkani in Kerala. 7–8. J. Rajathi. Language Division, Office of the Registrar General. 1976.
  60. Book: Global Encyclopaedia of the South Indian Dalit's Ethnography, Volume 2. Nagendra Singh. Global Vision Pub House. 2006. 729. 978-81-8220-167-5. Rajapura Saraswat (Rajapuri) are loosely referred to as Nayaka ... The Rajapura Saraswat are mostly vegetarian, rice being their chief food, but some use fish, and rear fowls...

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