Russian information war against Ukraine explained

The Russian information war against Ukraine was articulated by the Russian government as part of the Gerasimov doctrine.[1] [2] [3] They believed that Western governments were instigating color revolutions in former Soviet states which posed a threat to Russia.[4]

The concept of "informatsionnaya voyna" encompasses various strategies, including cyberwarfare, often described as technical defenses against technical attacks in warfare.[5] However, cyberwarfare is just one aspect of Russia's information war, which may include controlling undersea communications cables, shaping national narratives, manipulating the news cycle, and flooding the information space with Russian bots and trolls. The goal is to achieve strategic victory and exert reflexive control.[6] [7] These efforts were used as part of its disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine.

Due to effective censorship, most media outlets in Russia are government-controlled, allowing Kremlin messaging to successfully sway the citizens of the Russian Federation to support its approach in Ukraine.[8] The Kremlin has denied waging war in Ukraine, claiming it only wants to protect Russian speakers against Ukrainian Nazis.[9] This narrative has been reinforced by Russian television since 2014, giving it an advantage through repetition and familiarity.[10] According to a recent poll, 58 percent of Russians approved of this perspective between February 28 and March 3.

During the ongoing Russian invasion, Ukraine's online propaganda largely focuses on its heroes and martyrs, using their stories to emphasize Ukrainian fortitude and Russian aggression.[11] Additionally, Ukraine's strategy includes employing comedy[12] and promoting skepticism towards Russian narratives.[13] [14]

Background

Valery Gerasimov, chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, describes a novel type of warfare that incorporates elements of propaganda, demoralization, distraction and political posturing in both peace and times of war, and above all the importance of social media, beyond both cyberwarfare and information war as NATO understands them,[15] He suggested a 4:1 ratio of nonmilitary to military measures. Nonmilitary tactics also come under the military in Russia, and although United States Marine Corps research suggests that the ratio is still largely aspirational, it indicates recognition of "the utility of nonmilitary measures in interstate confrontation, especially during what would be considered peacetime."[5]

The Russian Federation misinforms and misleads its citizens and the audience of its television channels in other countries - Channel One Russia and Russia-24 for example.[16]

Reasons for the conflict

Identity

Like Ukraine, Belarus and Russia consider the Kievan Rus as their cultural ancestor.[17] Many Russians see Kyiv as the birthplace of their nation.[18] Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent under Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054); his sons issued its first written legal code, the Russkaya Pravda, shortly after his death.[19] In the 2000s, Russia waged a large-scale propaganda campaign in Ukraine, based on the doctrine of "Russian world", and Putin said "...we are one nation. Kyiv is the mother of Russian cities."[20] Its ideological basis was post-Soviet revanchism in the Russian Federation for the cultural, economic, and territorial restoration of pre-1991 borders and the restoration of the former Soviet "zone of influence" in Europe and Asia.[21] [22] [23] [24]

This revanchism sees three categories of the world's population as "Russian": ethnic Russians, regardless of where they live; a Russian-speaking population regardless of nationality; compatriots who have never lived on the territory of the Russian Empire, the USSR and other state entities, as well as their descendants.[25]

At the 2008 Bucharest summit April 2–4, 2008, Putin told United States President George W. Bush: "You understand, George, that Ukraine is not even a state! What is Ukraine?"[26] [27] [28]

Many Russians idealize Soviet Russia, under the rule of the Communist Party as a time of prosperity, and the ruling United Russia party as heir to the country's "glorious past."[29] Since the collapse of the USSR, Russian politicians have talked about restoring Russia's influence in post-Soviet countries."According to Vladimir Bukovsky, a dissident who spent a decade in Soviet prisons before his exile to the West in 1976, Vladimir Putin was totally sincere when he called the disintegration of the Soviet Union a 'geopolitical catastrophe'."[30]

Putin sees the growth of NATO in Eastern Europe as an "existential threat",[31] and has written that Russia and Ukraine are really one country.[32] This revanchism focuses on Ukraine, whose withdrawal from the USSR led to its collapse.[33] [31] "Russia is restoring its unity—the tragedy of 1991, this terrible catastrophe in our history, has been overcome," RIA Novosti, Russia's primary online state news agency, exulted on February 26, 2022.[34] The Putin regime contrasts "ours" and "others" in Ukraine, and suggests that violence against "others" is desirable and even required.[35]

The Russian government frames its hybrid war as a conflict between Russia and NATO, but while geopolitics and its desire for a post-Soviet sphere play into its focus on Ukraine, so do its domestic politics. An independent Ukrainian democracy might inspire Russians to demand their own democracy and "perhaps even challenge Mr. Putin's authoritarianism."

History of the war

In June 2014, the Ukrainian National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine (NSDC) obtained materials used to train Russian information war specialists.[36] They instructed Russian soldiers to "actively influence the consciousness and system of knowledge and ideas of the target country," according to NSDC Secretary Andriy Parubiy.[37]

Propaganda targeting the Russian people, justifying a future war against Ukraine, appeared even before Russia's first incursion into Ukraine in 2014.[38] In 2009, Maxim Kalashnikov's "Independent Ukraine: Failure of a Project" portrayed Ukraine as a Yugoslavia on the verge of an ethnic breakup. Novels such as Fyodor Berezin's "War 2010: Ukrainian Front", Georgiy Savitsky's "Battlefield Ukraine: The broken trident" and Alexander Sever's "Russian-Ukrainian Wars" posited a war against Ukraine.[39] [40] Activists said Russia had also waged an information war against Ukraine through cinema.[41]

Kremlin-run media in 2014 created the impression in Crimea that "fascists, anti-Semites and extremists" were in power in Kyiv and chaos ruled the rest of Ukraine, but this had "little or nothing to do with reality."

Since Ukraine's independence, Russia has waged a constant information war against it, especially under the pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych.[42] In February 2014, for example, Russians flatly denied that their military maneuvers in any way threatened Ukraine: "These were local self-defense forces," Putin said of the men who tried to seize the Crimean parliament.[43]

Information operations

Censorship

See also: Russian 2022 war censorship laws. In February 2017, the Russian Minister of Defence acknowledged the existence of "information operations forces" in Russia.[44] In 2021, Open Media,[45] The Moscow Times,[46] and theMoscow bureau of Deutsche Welle was also shut down.

A Russian law signed on March 4, 2022 provided drastic penalties for spreading "false information" or protesting or "discrediting" Russia's actions in Ukraine.[47] Russian schools must follow the official curriculum.[48] After the 2022 legislation made it illegal to publish information on the Ukrainian war that the Kremlin deems "false", some Western media withdrew their reporters due to safety concerns.[49] Independent Russian media outlets shut down, including TV Rain and Novaya Gazeta, whose editor had received the Nobel Peace Prize in 2021.[50] News website Znak announced its closing, and Ekho Moskvy, owned by Kremlin-linked Gazprom, also shut down.[51] The websites of Deutsche Welle, the BBC, Meduza and Radio Free Europe became inaccessible from within Russia without a VPN.News sites Mediazona, Republic, and Agentstvo were also blocked from the Russian internet after the law passed, and became available only by VPN.[52]

Russia also jammed commercial broadcast signals and penetrated both civilian and military communications networks.

Cyberwarfare

Telecommunications

Russia's Leer-3 drone system can listen to or suppress cellular communications, and even send text messages to front-line soldiers. Ukrainian soldiers have received texted jeers and threats from the Russians on their cell phones,[53] and family members of Ukrainian soldiers have also reported receiving calls saying that those soldiers were dead. The Russian Orlan-10 has also been extensively used in electronic warfare in Ukraine.

In a 2016 article, Estonian Military Academy researcher and University of Tartu co-professor for oriental studies Dr. Vladimir Sazonov similarly noted that Russian intelligence agencies had been conducting information warfare operations ever since the start of the war in Donbas in 2014. According to Sazonov, amongst the strategies used by Russian agents included sending text messages such as "a huge Russian military contingent will reach Kyiv in three days" and "Russian tanks are about to take over Kharkiv." These messages, which were sent to the mobile phones of Ukrainian soldiers, potential recruits and their families before each new wave of mobilisation in the country, were intended to demoralise Ukrainians and spread panic amongst civilians.[54]

However, tactical communications have also been an issue for the Russian military, to the point where some troops in Georgia received their orders from an Air Force officer who arrived by helicopter.[55] Then-president Dmitry Medvedev ordered an expansion of the military's radio system in 2009, with a contract to a manufacturer partially owned by a former Medvedev advisor. The contract was subsequently troubled by embezzlement allegations.[56] [57]

Internet infrastructure

See also: Internet Exchange Points in Russia.

On March 9, 2022, Internet service provider suffered an outage in Kharkiv and other cities caused by a factory reset of several of its devices. Recovery efforts were hampered by shelling in the area at the time, which made it dangerous to go on-site and may have damaged internet connectivity.[58] Attackers had previously disrupted its connectivity and DNS routing on February 24.[59] National telecoms operator Ukrtelecom in late March also suffered, then recovered from, a major cyber-attack.[60]

In Russia, as of March 14, peering agreements were still in place but new regulation was expected to ban web hosting outside Russia and require the use of official DNS servers.[61] Transit providers Lumen and Cogent both left Russia after the invasion in early March, but this had a limited effect on the Russian internet connectivity because they continued to peer with some of the larger Russian ISPs, such as Rostelecom and Rascom, at exchanges outside Russia.[62]

War propaganda

Information warfare has deep roots in Russia. In addition to presenting a Russian narrative and version of events, it strives to cause confusion and cast doubt on the idea of truth.[63] Russia transmits war propaganda through news media in its ongoing war against Ukraine.[64] [65] As early as September 2008, Alexander Dugin, a Russian fascist[66] [67] known as "Putin's brain," advocated an invasion of Ukraine and other countries that had previously been part of the USSR:[68] [66] "The Soviet empire will be restored. in different ways: by force, diplomacy, economic pressure ... Everything will depend on place and time."

On February 28, 2022 RIA Novosti published, then took down, an incorrect report that Russia had won the Russo-Ukrainian War and "Ukraine has returned to Russia".[69] [70] On March 14, Marina Ovsyannikova, an editor at Channel One, interrupted a live broadcast to protest the Russian invasion of Ukraine,[71] carrying a poster that said in Russian and English: "Stop the war, don't believe the propaganda, here you are being lied to."[72] RT, a Russian state-controlled television network, was officially banned in the European Union and suspended by television service providers in several other countries.[73] YouTube blocked RT and Sputnik across Europe to prevent Russian disinformation.[74] Many RT journalists resigned after Russia invaded Ukraine.[75] [76] Russian teachers received detailed instructions on teaching the invasion of Ukraine.[77] The Mayakovsky Theatre in Moscow received a government email "to refrain from any comments on the course of military actions in Ukraine", warning that any negative comments would be "regarded as treason against the Motherland".

The Russian government uses the "Z" symbol as a pro-war propaganda tool, Russian civilians as a sign of support for the invasion.[78]

According to Pjotr Sauer of The Guardian, many Russians still support Putin and don't believe that the “special military operation” in Ukraine is related to Russian propaganda and disinformation.[79] Polls conducted by the Levada Center between February 17 and 21 found that 60% of respondents blamed the US and NATO for escalating tensions, while only 4% blamed Russia.[80] Similarly, an independent telephone survey from February 28 to March 1 found that 58% of Russian respondents approved of the military operation.[81] [82] However, a series of four online polls by Alexei Navalny's Anti-Corruption Foundation found that between February 25 and March 3, the share of respondents in Moscow who considered Russia an "aggressor" increased from 29% to 53%, while the share of those who considered Russia a "peacemaker" fell by half from 25% to 12%.[83] [84] Some observers have noted a "generational struggle" among Russians over perception of the war,[85] with younger Russians generally opposed to it[86] and older Russians more likely to accept the narrative presented by state-controlled media in Russia.[87] Kataryna Wolczuk of Chatham House said, "[Older] Russians are inclined to believe the official narrative that Russia is defending Russian speakers in Ukraine, so it's offering protection rather than aggression." Russian opposition politician Alexei Navalny said the "monstrosity of lies" in the Russian state media "is unimaginable. And, unfortunately, so is its persuasiveness for those without access to alternative information."[88]

On March 12, YouTube blocked an unspecified number of media outlets controlled by the Russian state, including RT and Sputnik, citing its policy against content that "denies, minimizes, or trivializes well-documented violent events".[89] On March 18, the British media regulator Ofcom revoked RT's broadcasting licence.[90] On April 2, it was reported that Putin's approval rating in Russia had risen to 83% a month after the invasion, from a 69% approval rating as prior to the invasion during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic.[91]

State-controlled television channels, through which most Russians consume news,[92] presented the invasion as a liberation mission and accused Ukrainian troops of attacking civilian targets.[79] [93] Mediazona, a Russian independent media outlet, reported that the FSB had fabricated a video of a woman accusing Ukraine of war crimes in Mariupol[94] [95] and shared screenshots of emails instructing media outlets not to reveal the source of the video.[94]

See main article: What Russia should do with Ukraine. In an op-ed published in the Russian state outlet RIA Novosti, Timofei Sergeytsev openly advocated the "purification" of Ukrainians, blurring the lines between the Ukrainian government, military, and civilians, then the cultural genocide of Ukraine through the obliteration of the Ukrainian name and culture, and finally the reeducation of the remaining civilians together with a strict regime of censorship in order to incorporate them in a greater Russia.[96] Alexei Navalny tweeted in April 2022 that "warmongers" among Russian state media personalities "should be treated as war criminals".[97] On April 13, 2014, NATO Secretary-General Anders Fogh Rasmussen, in a statement posted on the alliance's website, accused Russia of promoting war and wanting to overthrow Ukraine.[98]

In early 2022 the United States government warned that Russia was planning a false flag operation to invade Ukraine, and pointed to "a pattern of Russian behavior" that included invading and occupying parts of Georgia in 2008, and noted Russia's "failure to honor its 1999 commitment to withdraw its troops and munitions from Moldova, where they remain without the government's consent."[99] In 2014, Vladimir Putin called opponents of the war nothing more than "traitors" and a "fifth column".[67]

Children's television has also broadcast war propaganda, as when Phil the dog joined the army in 2014 to become "a real defender".[100]

The throttling of information into Russia also impedes the Kremlin's own information diet. The Center for Strategic and International Studies wrote in 2022 that the Ukrainian invasion "bears an eerie resemblance to Soviet decision making in 1979 to invade Afghanistan," poor intelligence, misreading the international reaction, over-optimism, incomprehension of the costs.[101]

Control of news outlets

See also: Mass media in Russia and Mass media in Ukraine.

Public relations

Russia has learned to use respected Western media like BBC News, Reuters, and AFP to promote anti-Ukrainian propaganda. These media outlets were unprepared for the Russian-Ukrainian war in 2014, and often became unintentional distributors of Russian anti-Ukrainian propaganda.[102] [103]

Russia has also learned to skillfully use Western PR companies to disseminate the narratives it needs in the interests of various Russian government institutions and private corporations.[104]

The Kremlin has instructed official Russian television outlets to rebroadcast Tucker Carlson's show “as much as possible.”[105] [106] [107] Marjorie Taylor Greene has also gotten approving coverage on Kremlin media, as when she said that the US was responsible for the 2014 overthrow of the Russian puppet government in the Ukrainian Revolution of Dignity.[108]

Ukraine

See also: Television in Ukraine. Many Ukrainian news outlets are financed by wealthy investors.[109] [110] Some of these investors have close ties to Russian political power. This highly concentrated ownership of Ukrainian media has set a high barrier to entry for the market.[111] Four financial-political groups control nearly all broadcasting in Ukraine.[112] [113]

The top 20 most-viewed TV channels almost all belong to Ukraine's wealthiest oligarchs:

A decline in advertising revenues has left media outlets even more dependent on support from politicised owners, hence hindering their editorial independence. Paid content disguised as news (known as jeansa) remains widespread in the Ukrainian media, weakening their and journalists' credibility, especially during electoral campaigns.[118]

Media ownership remains opaque, despite a February 2014 bill requiring full disclosure of ownership structures.[118]

Other oligarch-owned media outlets:

Russia

See also: Television in Russia.

Russian media have been used for propaganda to persuade domestic and world audiences.[127] Among the best-known are Sputnik, RT (formerly RussiaToday), RIA Novosti, Life (formerly LifeNews).[128] [129]

About 85% of Russians get most of their information from Russian state media.[130]

Employees of Russian news outlets have been resigning since the 2022 incursion into Ukraine: “English-language RT staff member and one frequent RT contributor in Moscow have quit the network in recent days over the editorial position on the war, the Guardian has learned.” Zhanna Agalakova, a correspondent for two decades for Pervy Kanal (Channel One) in New York and Paris, announced in March that she was leaving over the invasion.[131] Liliya Gildeyeva, an anchor on the state-run channel NTV, also resigned.[132] Marina Ovsyannikova has been hired by the German media company Die Welt, a month after she drew worldwide attention for bursting onto the set of a live broadcast on Russian state television to protest the war in Ukraine.[133]

RT

RT is an important Russian weapon in the information war.[134] In 2014, John Kerry, then United States Secretary of State, called it a state-sponsored "propaganda bullhorn".[135] Its audience in 2015 was 700 million people in more than 100 countries.[136] In 2012, RT had the highest government spending per employee in the world, $183 thousand per person.[137]

As of 2014, Russia had spent more than $9 billion on its propaganda.[138] [139] In 2021, it increased the state media budget to 211 billion rubles (about $2.8 billion), 34 billion rubles ($460 million) more than the previous year.[140]

Russian interference with Ukrainian media

On March 6, 2014, "1 + 1" and Channel 5 in the territory of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea were turned off and Russia 24 captured the broadcasting frequencies of Crimea's private "Chernomorskaya TV and Radio Company". In Simferopol, state television and radio broadcaster Krym was also blocked by people in camouflage uniforms. General Director Stepan Gulevaty called the police, but they did not respond.[141]

On March 6, 2014, an Internet poll on the ATR TV website found that most respondents opposed the annexation of Crimea.[142] The next day Russian military in Crimea disconnected the ATR website. They also shut down the analogue broadcast signal of the Ukrainian TV channel Inter, on the frequencies of which NTV is broadcast.

On August 10, 2014, the German provider Hetzner Online AG sent a letter of apology to Glavkom. The provider had previously moved to block Glavkom at the request of the Russian Roskomnadzor for publishing material about the March for the federalization of Siberia.[143]

In July 2019, Hetzner Online warned The Ukrainian Week that the site would be blocked until "extremist content" was removed. The provider received a request for this from Roskomnadzor, which considers the 2015 material on Right Sector a violation of Russian legislation.[144]

For several months, DDoS attacks were carried out against Ukrainian information sites: Censor.NET, Tizhden.ua, Ukrayinska Pravda and others, as well as the website of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, with the appearance of ads for V. Yanukovych.[145] Similarly, in January 2022 Ukrainian cyber official Victor Zhora reported attacks on over 90 websites of 22 government groups on January 14, 2022. About 50 websites were vandalized while the remaindersuffered some damage.[146]

Methods and resources

Disinformation

See main article: Russian disinformation.

Russia uses disinformation both to support an image of its greatness and importance — or of the weakness of its enemies — or sometimes to deny its actions.

Kyiv “hasn’t been bombed by anyone” Channel One pundit Artyom Sheynin assured viewers on February 24, 2022, for example.[147] Also on February 24, “explosions and gunfire were heard through the day in Ukraine's capital and elsewhere in the country, with at least 70 people reported killed,” according to Reuters.[148] Most Russians get their information from television, although younger Russians tend to prefer online sources. These now require a VPN connection, making the truth now “mostly is discovered by people who already distrust the Kremlin and its state-sponsored media.”[149]

The untethering of the Russian news diet from facts doesn't just affect the populace. The Kremlin has been described as:

Other more subtle attacks, known as reflexive control, systematically distort and reinterpret words, leading "extremists" to become an accepted description for independent journalists and human rights activists, or peaceful demonstrators to be arrested as security threats.

Falsehood and adamant denial

"You could spend every hour of every day trying to bat down every lie, to the point where you don't achieve anything else. And that's exactly what the Kremlin wants," says Greg Pryatt, former US ambassador to Ukraine.[150] :59

= 2014

=In November 2013, the pro-Russian Ukrainian president Viktor Yanukovych blocked[151] the legislatively approved course towards European integration, and the Revolution of Dignity began. Putin "used disinformation to lay the groundwork to annex Crimea in 2014, and to support continued fighting in Ukraine's Eastern provinces of Donetsk and Luhansk," wrote Forbes contributor Jill Goldenziel.[152] Again in 2022, Kremlin propaganda had the goal of preparing world public opinion for the invasion of Ukraine.

In 2014 Putin for quite some time denied sending troops into Ukraine. He later said Russia was "protecting" the Russian-speaking population of Ukraine.[153] When Russia invaded Georgia in 2008, it gave many alternative explanations for its actions there as well,[154] and denied having plans to attack it. In 2014 Putin again denied his invasion, despite photos of military vehicles there from the North Caucasus Military District[155] One car had forgotten to camouflage an icon of the Guards Division. The soldiers also carried the Dragunov self-loading sniper rifle), only used by the Russian military.[156]

In March 2022, Russians said they had found evidence at the decommissioned Chernobyl nuclear power plant that Ukraine was working on a nuclear bomb. Experts scoffed at the claim, which they said was both impossible with the fuel there and not how anyone would run a secret weapons program.[157]

= Malaysia Airlines Flight 17

=The most fake tweets in a day, or on a single topic, by Russian disinformation agency Internet Research Agency (IRA),[158] followed the shooting down of the Malaysian MH17 airliner.[159] Russia took extensive measures and gave many narratives to hide its involvement.[160] [161]

In three days after the crash, the Russian Internet Research Agency posted 111,486 tweets from fake accounts, mostly in Russian.[162] At first they said that Russian-backed rebels downed a Ukrainian plane; later tweets said Ukraine had shot the airliner down.[163] RT quoted a Twitter account purportedly of an air traffic controller named Carlos who said he had seen Ukrainian fighter jets following the airliner[164] Supposedly Ukraine mistook the airliner for the Russian presidential jet.[165] In August 2015 Komsomoloskaya Pravda published a wiretap transcript of two named CIA operatives planning the MH17 attack, ridiculed for English that recalled "Google translated Russian phrases read from a script".[166]

On December 20, 2017, the Intelligence and Security Committee of the British Parliament in a report specifically emphasized that Russia had waged a massive information war with intense, multi-channel propaganda to convince the world that Russia did not shoot down the plane.[167] [168] [169]

= 2022

=

See main article: Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine. In 2022 Russia insisted it was merely conducting military exercises on the Ukrainian borders, then declared that it needed to protect Russian speakers in eastern Ukraine.[170] Russia also amassed troops at the Ukrainian border with Belarus and held naval exercises in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, which Kyiv called "an unjustified complication of international shipping", that made navigation "virtually impossible".[171] On February 15, 2022, Russia said it would "partially pull back" from Ukraine's borders, but according to the US, in fact sent additional troops.[172] "We can't really take the Russians for their word" said Canadian ambassador to the United Nations Bob Rae, after Russia resumed shelling within hours of announcing a ceasefire for civilian evacuation.[173]

After shelling a nuclear power plant complex in Zaporizhzhia, the Kremlin said its military seized it "to prevent Ukrainians and neo-Nazis from 'organizing provocations'".[157]

On August 16, 2022, Putin claimed that he "decided to conduct a special military operation in Ukraine in full compliance with the UN Charter." According to Putin, "the objectives of this operation are clearly defined – ensuring the security of Russia and our citizens, protecting the residents of Donbass from genocide."[174] On September 21, 2022, Putin announced a partial mobilisation, following a successful Ukrainian counteroffensive in Kharkiv.[175] In his address to the Russian audience, Putin claimed that the "Policy of intimidation, terror and violence" against the Ukrainian people by the pro-Western "Nazi" regime in Kyiv "has taken on ever more terrible barbaric forms", Ukrainians have been turned into "cannon fodder", and therefore Russia has no choice but to defend "our loved ones" in Ukraine."[176]

In October 2022, Russian-American writer and professor Nina Khrushcheva said, alluding to George Orwell's novel 1984, that in "Putin’s Russia, war is peace, slavery is freedom, ignorance is strength and illegally annexing a sovereign country’s territory is fighting colonialism."[177]

British historian Jade McGlynn wrote that in occupied Ukrainian territories in 2022, after seizing control over mobile internet offices and equipment and installing their own networks, Russian first unrolled propaganda of the same type as in 2014. In the first six months of occupation, the goal of propaganda was to convince Ukrainians living at the occupied territories that the Russian official version of the war is correct and the Ukrainian one is false. This propaganda was of low quality and failed to convince the population. After the initial six months, they switched to a different propaganda mode, in which the war was mentioned as rarely as possible, and the propagandists behaved like if the occupied territories always were Russian. They instead referred to Ukrainians as occupiers, and to the territories claimed but not controlled by Russia, such as the city of Zaporizhzhia, as “temporarily occupied by Ukrainian militants”. This narrative has been consistently advanced by the federal media, the local media, and the social media.[178]

Tropes

See also: Propaganda in the Russian Federation. Since the collapse of the USSR, Russia has circulated propaganda and disinformation to demonize Ukrainians. Neo-Nazis play a recurring role in Russian propaganda; in 2022 to justify military "denazification."[157] In Mariupol, Russians were told in 2022, Ukrainians fired on Russian soldiers despite the cease-fire, and according to TASS neo-Nazis were "hiding behind civilians as a human shield."[157]

According to Kacper Rękawek, a postdoctoral fellow with the Center for Research on Extremism at the University of Oslo, simultaneously portraying Ukrainians as fascists and depraved pro-gay liberals, as opposed to the solid conservative values of Russian speakers in eastern Ukraine, has roots in a longstanding narrative of politicians both in and outside Ukraine that ties Ukrainian speakers in Western Ukraine to far-right nationalists who fought against Soviets in World War II.[179]

Russia "has an extensive network of allies and front organizations, and reconstructs reality and rewrites history to legitimize itself and undermine others", said a 2018 article in Nature.[180]

In the early 1990s, the first such propaganda tropes presented events with the phrases "after the collapse of the USSR", and "with the collapse of the USSR", to create the impression that these phenomena arose because of the collapse of the USSR, and not the reverse.Propaganda tried to portray Ukraine as economically and politically bankrupt as a state. In 2009 Russia accused Ukraine of "stealing Russian gas".[181]

Ukrainian figures have been allegedly quoted making provocative statements.[182] A criminal case was brought against the leader of the Ukrainian Right Sector, Dmytro Yarosh, for supposedly publishing an appeal to Dokka Umarov to carry out terrorist attacks in the Russian Federation. A day later authorities announced that the "appeal" had been the work of hackers.[183]

In the same way as Russian propaganda sought to portray its swift victory as inevitable against incompetent Ukrainian commanders, Russian media also sought to create fear and loathing with stereotypes of its own Chechen fighters.[184]

Social media

In 2022 government groups posed as independent news entities and created fake personas on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, Telegram and also the Russian-language Odnoklassniki and V Kontakte, to disseminate Russian narratives, such as the alleged helplessness of Ukrainians and videos of their fighters surrendering.[185]

According to The Washington Post, in 2014 the Russian military intelligence (GRU) created more than 30 pseudo-Ukrainian groups and social media accounts, as well as 25 "leading English-language" publications. Posing as ordinary Ukrainians, intelligence operatives concocted news and disseminated comments to turn pro-Russian citizens against the protesters.[186]

In early 2016 Ukrainian journalists discovered a network of dozens of social media groups, run from Moscow on multiple social media, that used nationalist rhetoric to undermine the Ukrainian government and mobilize protesters.[187]

Access to social media
Attempts to censor Russian Wikipedia

Ever since the early 2010s, Russian Wikipedia and its editors have experienced numerous and increasing threats of nationwide blocks and country-wide enforcement of blacklisting by the Russian government, as well as several attempts to Internet censorship, propaganda, and disinformation,[194] [195] [196] [197] more recently during the 2014 Russo-Ukrainian war in the Donbas region[159] [198] [199] [200] and the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian War.[201]

In February and March 2022,[201] the first week after the Russian invasion of Ukraine and break out of the Russo-Ukrainian War,[201] Russian Wikipedia editors warned their readers and fellow editors of several, reiterated attempts by the Putin-led Russian government of political censorship, Internet propaganda, disinformation, attacks, and disruptive editing towards an article listing Russian military casualties as well as Ukrainian civilians and children due to the ongoing war.[201]

On March 11, 2022, Belarusian political police (GUBOPiK) arrested one of the most active users of Russian Wikipedia Mark Bernstein for "spread of anti-Russian materials", violating the "fake news" law after being doxxed on Telegram.[202]

In April–July 2022, the Russian authorities put several Wikipedia articles on their list of forbidden sites,[203] [204] [205] and then ordered search engines to mark Wikipedia as a violator of Russian laws.[206]

Timeline

2014

See also: Euromaidan and Revolution of Dignity. During and before its annexation of Crimea and encroachment into Donetsk and Luhansk with AstroTurf rebellions, Russia demonized Ukrainians in the eyes of the Russian and international communities.[207] [208] [209]

February 2014

See also: Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, Timeline of the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation and 2014 Crimean status referendum.

See also: Little green men (Russo-Ukrainian War).

March 2014

See also: War in Donbas (2014–2022) and OSCE Special Monitoring Mission to Ukraine.

April 2014

April–May 2014: Sloviansk

May 2014 - Ukrainians attack

July–August 2014

October

December

2015

January–February 2015

March 2015

June 2015

2016

2017

May 2017 - Poroshenko blocked access in Ukraine to Russian servers for VKontakte, Odnoklassniki, Yandex and Mail.ru, claiming they participated in an information war against Ukraine.[267]

2018

2019

See also: 2019 Ukrainian presidential election.

April 2019

2021

See also: Prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

2022

January

February

March

Staged videos

Results

On November 23, 2016, the European Parliament passed a resolution opposing Russian propaganda.[324] Putin responded by calling the work of the Russian news agencies RT and Sputnik effective.[325]

2022

On March 1 YouTube blocked channels connected to RT and Sputnik across Europe, then worldwide on March 11 due to its insistence that Russia was not waging war in Ukraine.[326] Roku and DirectTV also dropped RT.[327]

Countermeasures

No precise equivalent appears to exist to the systemic Russian disinformation campaign, although Ukraine and other interested parties have used speeches, television appearances, social media, cyber warfare and viral memes against Russia. Not all of these actions can be attributed with certainty, but the United States has deployed soft power on Ukraine's behalf, at least one self-identified Anonymous account has claimed to have damaged Russian infrastructure, and a number of official Ukraine social media accounts have successfully created a favorable narrative.

The U.S. government, suspecting a buildup to a false flag attack, released its intelligence findings about Russian troop movements before the invasion began, undermining the posited plans to blame the attack on Ukraine; "the U.S. government was very forthcoming...there wasn't an information vacuum that the Russians could step in and fill" explained researcher Laura Edelson.[328]

Ukraine on the other hand has created a narrative of Ukrainian bravery and indomitability.

On April 5, 2022, R ussian opposition politician Alexei Navalny said the "monstrosity of lies" in the Russian state media "is unimaginable.And, unfortunately, so is its persuasiveness for those without access to alternative information."[88] He tweeted that "warmongers" among Russian state media personalities "should be treated as war criminals. From the editors-in-chief to the talk show hosts to the news editors, [they] should be sanctioned now and tried someday."[329]

Zelenskyy

Zelenskyy's speeches have repeatedly gone viral and galvanized the Ukrainian population.[330] An underdog hero tackling evil forces attacking him is an ancient human narrative as fundamental and continuing as Gilgamesh and Luke Skywalker, and Zelenskyy has told it masterfully.[331] Wearing a green military t-shirt,[332] [333] he passionately appealed for help for his people in fiery virtual speeches to the parliaments of Canada,[334] the United Kingdom[335] and the European Union,[336] as well as a joint session of the U.S. Congress, to a standing ovation each time.

He has spoken to the Russian people directly,[337] in Russian, his first language. Also in Russian, he positioned himself on March 3 as a "neighbor" and an "ordinary guy", needling Putin for recently receiving his visitors at an extraordinarily long table:

Putin's previous shirtless photo-ops sought to position[338] him as a strong and virile leader. Images of the younger Zelenskyy wearing body armor and drinking tea with Ukrainian soldiers starkly contrasted with news broadcasts of Putin in rococo and very socially distanced[339] The body armor photo was taken in 2021,[340] and he actually drank tea with the soldiers a few days before the invasion began,[341] but the images were real if out of context, and the pictures of Putin at an enormously long table, apparently for fear of COVID-19, were also real.[342]

Official Ukrainian social media accounts have sought to bolster support for efforts against the invasion and spread information, with targeted posts and videos used to recruit soldiers and call for international aid. Some media analysts have highlighted the Ukrainian officials' methods as beneficial.[343] Several academics, including Professors Rob Danish and Timothy Naftali, have highlighted Zelenskyy's speaking ability and use of social media to spread information and draw upon feelings of shame and concern while building kinship with viewers.[344] Real-time information about the invasion has been spread by online activists, journalists, politicians, and members of the general population, both in and out of Ukraine.[345]

Official communications of Ukrainian authorities, in particular, during the preparation of the announced 2023 offensive, were confusing, presumably intentionally, to prevent Russia from having access to information. A former Danish intelligence officer Jacob Funk Kirkegaard, while interviewed in May 2023, opined that "every public announcement from Ukraine should be viewed as essentially misinformation".[346]

Propaganda in other countries

Chinese diplomats, government agencies, and state-controlled media in China have used the war as an opportunity to deploy anti-American propaganda,[347] [348] and they have amplified conspiracy theories created by Russia, such as the false claims that public health facilities in Ukraine are "secret US biolabs".[349] [350] Such conspiracy theories have also been promoted by Cuban state media.[351]

Russian propaganda has also been repeated by the state-controlled outlets of other countries such as Serbia[352] and Iran.[353] [354] In Iran, the state media criticised the British embassy in Tehran after it raised the Ukrainian flag in support of Ukraine. Reports from Sputnik have been actively republished by Iran's pro-regime media.[355] In Latin America, RT Actualidad is a popular channel that has spread disinformation about the war.[356] Authorities in Vietnam have instructed reporters not to use the word "invasion" and to minimize coverage of the war.[357] In South Africa, the governing African National Congress published an article in its weekly newsletter ANC Today endorsing the notion that Russia had invaded Ukraine to denazify it.[358]

Memes

Also shot on February 25, a video of an elderly woman scolding a Russian soldier appears to record an actual event in Henichesk. She gave him sunflower seeds so sunflowers would grow when he died.[359] [360]

The wildly popular social media legend, Ghost of Kyiv, "a Ukrainian fighter pilot who shot down six Russian planes cannot be confirmed", said Deutsche Welle on March 1.[361] The story was tweeted by the official Ukraine account and authenticated by former Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko but the photo of the pilot posted by Poroshenko turned out to be three years old. The story's factuality has been questioned by both Russian and Western media. The Ukrainian military has not verified it, for one thing, and some of the images were definitely repurposed from elsewhere.[362] But on February 25, the Ministry of Defence of Ukraine suggested that "The Ghost of Kyiv" might be a returning reserve pilot, so they did not deny it either.

The defiant response of a Ukrainian border guard stationed at Zmiinyi (Snake Island) began a Ukrainian framing of the war as David vs. Goliath, which the videos of Ukrainian farmers towing off abandoned Russian tanks have helped to continue.[363]

Some Ukrainians say that the many memes that have circulated since the war began have helped them to cope with their uncertain future by making them laugh.[364] Citizen contributions can also serve the more serious purpose of combatting disinformation, says Daniel Johnson, a Roy H. Park Fellow at UNC Hussman's School of Journalism and former U.S. Army journalist. "It's hard to lie when I have 150 videos showing that you're not in Kyiv and you're not winning," he said.[365]

See also

Bibliography

In English

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Gerasimov . Valery . 2013 . The value of science in prediction . Military Review . Military-Industrial Kurier . 27.
  2. Galeotti . Mark . 2018 . The mythical 'Gerasimov Doctrine' and the language of threat . Critical Studies on Security . 7 . 2 . 157–161 . 10.1080/21624887.2018.1441623 . 159811828.
  3. Web site: I'm Sorry for Creating the 'Gerasimov Doctrine' . March 6, 2018 . Foreign Policy. March 5, 2018 .
  4. http://www.journal.forces.gc.ca/Vol19/No4/PDF/CMJ194Ep54.pdf What Is the ‘Technology of the Colour Revolutions,’ and Why Does It Occupy Such a Prominent Place in Russian Threat Perceptions?
  5. Russia's Information Warfare: Exploring the Cognitive Dimension
  6. February 2022 . Why Botter: How Pro-Government Bots Fight Opposition in Russia . . . . 116 . 1 . 843–857 . 10.1017/S0003055421001507 . 1537-5943 . 08009025 . 805068983 . 247038589 . March 10, 2022 . free . Stukal . Denis . Sanovich . Sergey . Bonneau . Richard . Tucker . Joshua A..
  7. Web site: Gilles . Keir . Handbook of Russian Information Warfare. Fellowship Monograph 9. NATO Defense College ISBN 978-88-96898-16-1 p.4 .
  8. News: Manjoo . Farhad . Farhad Manjoo . March 2, 2022 . Opinion: Putin No Longer Seems Like a Master of Disinformation . . subscription . November 14, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221125200241/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/02/opinion/putin-disinformation-social-media.html . November 25, 2022 . bot: unknown .
  9. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/02/24/putin-denazify-ukraine/ Putin says he will 'denazify' Ukraine. Here's the history behind that claim
  10. https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2022/04/dont-sleep-russian-information-war-capabilities/364050/ Don’t Sleep on Russian Information-War Capabilities: Indeed, the Ukraine invasion should galvanize U.S. investment in its own messaging infrastructure
  11. News: March 3, 2022 . Fact and Mythmaking Blend in Ukraine's Information War . The New York Times . March 24, 2022 . The claims by Ukraine do not compare to the falsehoods being spread by Russia...Instead, Ukraine’s online propaganda is largely focused on its heroes and martyrs, characters who help dramatize tales of Ukrainian fortitude and Russian aggression..
  12. https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2022/3/10/ukrainian-wartime-humour-derides-and-ridicules-russia As bombs fall on Ukraine, memes ridicule Russian aggression: People hiding from violence in subterranean shelters exchange jokes on their phones as a release from the darkness
  13. Aliaksandrau . Andrei . December 15, 2014 . Brave new war: The information war between Russia and Ukraine . Index on Censorship . 43 . 4 . 54–60 . 10.1177/0306422014560963 . 145000133 . Ukrainian bloggers, social media activists and journalists are educating their audiences on how to identify fakes.. free .
  14. Szostek . Joanna . 2017 . Nothing Is True? The Credibility of News and Conflicting Narratives during "Information War" in Ukraine . The International Journal of Press/Politics . 23 . 116–135 . 10.1177/1940161217743258 . 148835708 . The closeup study of news consumption in Ukraine at a time of 'information war' shows that individuals judge the credibility of narratives based on whether issues that matter to them are addressed, not only on whether particular 'facts' are likely to be genuine.. free .
  15. https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/09/05/gerasimov-doctrine-russia-foreign-policy-215538/ The Gerasimov Doctrine: It’s Russia’s new chaos theory of political warfare. And it’s probably being used on you.
  16. http://tsn.ua/politika/doktor-komarovskiy-pro-rosiyski-kanali-takoyi-brehni-ne-bulo-nikoli-v-usomu-radyanskomu-soyuzi-337825.html Доктор Комаровський про російські канали: такої брехні не було ніколи в усьому Радянському Союзі
  17. Book: Plokhy , Serhii . The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus . 2006 . Cambridge University Press . New York . 978-0-521-86403-9 . 10–15 . For all the salient differences between these three post-Soviet nations, they have much in common when it comes to their culture and history, which goes back to Kievan Rus', the medieval East Slavic state based in the capital of present-day Ukraine, . April 27, 2010.
  18. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/18/world/europe/russia-ukraine-timeline.html A timeline of the tensions between Russia and Ukraine
  19. Bushkovitch, Paul. A Concise History of Russia. Cambridge University Press. 2011.
  20. https://www.fiia.fi/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/fiiareport45_fogoffalsehood.pdf Fog of Falsehood: Russian Strategy of Deception and the Conflict in Ukraine
  21. http://www.volynnews.com/news/policy/tsenzura-v-rosiyi-zakryly-zmi-shcho-pyshut-pravdu-pro-ukrayinu/ Цензура в Росії: закрили ЗМІ, що пишуть правду про Україну
  22. http://ua.korrespondent.net/ukraine/politics/3356710-mzs-ukrainy-sturbovane-sytuatsiieui-zi-svobodoui-slova-v-rosii МЗС України стурбоване ситуацією зі свободою слова в Росії.
  23. http://espreso.tv/news/2014/06/11/cenzura_v_diyi_minkult_rosiyi_zaboronyv_vystavy_na_knyzhkovomu_festyvali Цензура в дії: Мінкульт Росії заборонив виставу про Майдан на книжковому фестивалі.
  24. http://tyzhden.ua/News/113016 У російських соціальних мережах автоматично видаляють пости з критикою Путіна.
  25. https://www.ccdcoe.org/uploads/2018/10/Ch10_CyberWarinPerspective_Jaitner.pdf Russian Information Warfare: Lessons from Ukraine
  26. News: Блок НАТО разошелся на блокпакеты. NATO Divided About New Membership Applications. Коммерсантъ. April 7, 2008 .
  27. News: Лавров подтверждает слова Путина "Украина — это даже не государство . "Lavrov confirms Putin's words "Ukraine is not even a state" . August 4, 2008. УНІАН . ru.
  28. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/24/opinion/russia-ukraine-putin-biden.html Putin Has the U.S. Right Where He Wants It
  29. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/soviet-unions-demise-seen-todays-russians The Soviet Union's Demise As Seen by Today's Russians
  30. News: March 28, 2014 . Vladimir Putin: The rebuilding of 'Soviet' Russia . en-GB . BBC News . June 9, 2023.
  31. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/24/europe/ukraine-russia-conflict-explainer-2-cmd-intl/index.html What does Putin want in Ukraine?: The conflict explained
  32. https://www.npr.org/2021/12/24/1066861022/how-the-soviet-unions-collapse-explains-the-current-russia-ukraine-tension How the Soviet Union's collapse explains the current Russia-Ukraine tension
  33. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/ukraine-conflict-crossroads-europe-and-russia Ukraine: Conflict at the Crossroads of Europe and Russia
  34. https://www.economist.com/europe/2022/02/28/the-kremlins-propaganda-machine-is-running-at-full-throttle The Kremlin's propaganda machine is running at full throttle: But the truth is breaking through
  35. http://diepresse.com/home/meinung/gastkommentar/1576185/Russlands-imitierter-Kampf-gegen-Faschismus Russlands imitierter «Kampf gegen Faschismus».— DiePresse.com
  36. Web site: Парубий рассказал, какой инструктаж получают российские силовики для ведения информационной войны в Украине | Цензор.НЕТ.
  37. https://m.censor.net/ru/news/290163/parubiyi_rasskazal_kakoyi_instruktaj_poluchayut_rossiyiskie_siloviki_dlya_vedeniya_informatsionnoyi Агрессия России против Украины, Диверсанты на Востоке УкраиныПарубий рассказал, какой инструктаж получают российские силовики для ведения информационной войны в Украине: Россия инструктирует свои силовые подразделения о том, как вести информационную войну в Украине и влиять на сознание украинцев
  38. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/american-salo-tastes-like-russian-propaganda-lard-38758.html American salo' tastes like Russian propaganda lard
  39. https://www.theverge.com/platform/amp/2014/7/14/5898257/sci-fi-writers-imagined-the-ukraine-conflict-before-it-happened Sci-fi writers imagined the Ukraine conflict that they're now fighting in: Life imitates art
  40. httpAs early as July 25, t//www.segodnya.ua/ukraine/v-roccii-nachali-shtampovat-knihi-o-vojne-c-ukrainoj.html В России начали штамповать книги о войне с Украиной
  41. http://osvita.mediasapiens.ua/material/34788 Активісти започаткували ініціативу «Бойкот російського кіно»
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  44. Web site: Phil Muncaster. February 24, 2017. Russia Admits Major Info Warfare Mission. Infosecurity Magazine.
  45. https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/russian-news-outlet-open-media-says-blocked-by-state-media-watchdog-2021-08-04/ Russian news outlet to close after being blocked by state media watchdog
  46. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/03/russian-news-site-close-foreign-agent-vtimes Russian news site to close over 'foreign agent' designation: VTimes, one of country's last remaining independent media outlets, to shut this month
  47. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/04/world/europe/russia-censorship-media-crackdown.html Russia Takes Censorship to New Extremes, Stifling War Coverage
  48. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/2/do-not-call-ukraine-invasion-a-war-russia-tells-media-schools Do not call Ukraine invasion a ‘war’, Russia tells media, schools: Instead, ‘special military operation’ should be used to describe Moscow’s assault on Ukraine, according to officials
  49. https://www.cnn.com/2022/03/04/media/russia-media-crack-down/index.html More Russian media outlets close as Moscow cracks down
  50. https://www.dw.com/en/russia-fewer-independent-media-outlets-every-day/a-61004083 Russia: Fewer independent media outlets every day: Media outlets in Russia have to call the war against Ukraine a "special military operation." Journalists who try to resist face harsh consequences. The latest casualty is Russia's best-known independent radio station
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  52. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/6/russia-blocks-more-news-outlets-over-war-coverage Russian authorities block independent media outlets including Mediazona, says digital rights group
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  56. https://www.bfm.ru/news/436001 Создал обстановку «запугивания и страха». Суд арестовал замначальника Генштаба Арсланова
  57. https://www.bfm.ru/news/492897 Суд приговорил генерала Оглоблина к 4,5 года колонии и штрафу за хищения: В его деле речь шла о махинациях на 1 млрд 618 млн рублей при реализации госконтрактов с Минобороны по поставкам военной техники
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  221. https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/02/23/russia-dont-trust-ukraines-opposition-a32392 Russia: Don't Trust Ukraine's Opposition
  222. News: Russian Foreign Ministry called the Ukrainian revolution "brown" . . RU . February 19, 2014.
  223. News: МИД России: В Украине "коричневая" революция, мы применим все влияние. Russian . Russian Foreign Ministry: In Ukraine the "brown" revolution, we will apply all the influence . . UA . February 19, 2014 .
  224. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/war-against-ukraine/debunking-the-kremlin-myth-about-the-korsun-pogrom-video-383832.html Debunking the Kremlin myth about the 'Korsun pogrom'
  225. News: Putin's narrative on Crimea annexation takes an evolutionary leap . Kyiv Post . March 11, 2015 . March 12, 2015.
  226. Web site: Путин попросил ввести войска РФ в Крым из-за инсценированного боя со стрельбой и "липовыми" жертвами. Украинская правда. Процитовано 21 грудня 2016. Putin asked to send Russian troops to Crimea because of a staged battle with shooting and "fake" victims. Pravda . March 2, 2014 . uk . March 2, 2022.
  227. News: В Крыму сдалась последняя украинская воинская часть. правды». Комсомольская правда Сайт "Комсомольской. March 24, 2014. ru. KP.RU — сайт «Комсомольской правды». May 26, 2017.
  228. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/sbu-detains-russian-provocateur-believed-to-have-planned-raid-on-ukrainian-parliament-cabinet-341555.html SBU detains Russian provocateur believed to have planned raid on parliament, cabinet buildings
  229. http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/04/02/alexander-dugin-the-crazy-ideologue-of-the-new-russian-empire.html Alexander Dugin: The Crazy Ideologue of the New Russian Empire – The Daily Beast
  230. Web site: Russian forces operating in two Donetsk cities, Ukraine minister says :: Daily News :: Research :: Concorde Capital. IPO, M&A, research, sales and trading. IPO в Украине . Concorde.ua . April 28, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140417014044/http://concorde.ua/en/research/daily/russian-forces-operating-in-two-cities-ukraine-minister-says-12371/ . April 17, 2014 . dead.
  231. Web site: Ukraina: Zidentyfikowano ludzi, którzy pojawili się w Słowiańsku i Kramatorsku. To żołnierze rosyjscy . pl . Wiadomosci.gazeta.pl . April 16, 2014 . April 28, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140421085314/http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/wiadomosci/1,114871,15808518,Ukraina__Zidentyfikowano_ludzi__ktorzy_pojawili_sie.html . April 21, 2014 . dead.
  232. https://www.rferl.org/a/ukraine-unspun-concentration-camp/25370814.html How Russian Media Turned Construction Site Into 'Concentration Camp'
  233. https://tass.com/world/729871 Ukrainian radicals attack peaceful antifascist procession in Donetsk, TASS, April 29, 2014
  234. https://www.stopfake.org/en/the-lie-of-russian-mass-media-ukrainian-soldiers-kill-their-own-men-unwilling-to-fight/ The lie of Russian mass media: Ukrainian soldiers kill their own men unwilling to fight
  235. https://www.economist.com/europe/2017/05/25/ukraine-and-russia-are-both-trapped-by-the-war-in-donbas Ukraine and Russia are both trapped by the war in Donbas: The Minsk-2 peace agreement is a sham, but neither side can pull out
  236. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/02/world/europe/a-test-for-ukraine-in-slovyansk-city-retaken-from-pro-russian-rebels.html A Test for Ukraine in a City Retaken From Rebels
  237. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/08/russian-media-fabricated-story-about-a-child-getting-killed-by-ukrainian-shelling-the-bbc-says/ Russian media fabricated story about a child getting killed by Ukrainian shelling, the BBC says
  238. https://www.thedailybeast.com/theres-no-evidence-the-ukrainian-army-crucified-a-child-in-slovyansk There's No Evidence the Ukrainian Army Crucified a Child in Slovyansk: GRISLY FABRICATION
  239. https://risu.ua/en/police-finds-murderers-of-pentecostals-in-slovyansk_n88983 Police finds murderers of Pentecostals in Slovyansk
  240. https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2014/0812/A-Ukrainian-murder-mystery-ensnares-a-church-in-former-rebel-stronghold A Ukrainian murder mystery ensnares a church in former rebel stronghold: That pro-Russia separatists kidnapped and murdered four members of a Pentecostal church in Slaviansk seems sure. But very little else about the incident is
  241. http://inspired.com.ua/video/russian-army-parody/#more-21237 Українці затролили росіян пародіями на вірусну рекламу їх армії. 07.05.2014
  242. https://m.dw.com/en/the-scars-of-ukraines-war-in-mariupol/a-19430738 The scars of Ukraine's war in Mariupol
  243. Web site: Украинский журналист предложил убить 1,5 млн жителей Донбасса. February 4, 2022. ВЗГЛЯД.РУ. Ukrainian journalist proposed to kill 1.5 million residents of Donbass . August 1, 2014. ru.
  244. ru:Богдан Буткевич Все просто, нужно убить 1 5млн жителей Донбасса. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhYyj5l9Lx0. en. February 4, 2022. YouTube. Hromadske TV.
  245. https://www.foi.se/rest-api/report/FOI%20Memo%207312 Propaganda by Proxy: Ukrainian oligarchs, TV and Russia's influence
  246. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-28934213 Captured Russian troops 'in Ukraine by accident'
  247. News: КАПИТАН, КОТОРЫЙ ИЗМЕНИЛ ХОД ВОЙНЫ. Censor.net. ru-RU. The captain who changed the course of the war. October 31, 2016.
  248. News: КОГДА И КАК ВЗЯЛИ В ПЛЕН ДЕСЯТЬ РОССИЙСКИХ ДЕСАНТНИКОВ 24 АВГУСТА 2014 ГОДА?. Censor.net. ru-RU. When and how 10 Russian paratroopers were captured. October 31, 2016.
  249. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-ukraine-crisis-television-idUSKBN0GJ1QM20140819 Ukraine bans Russian TV channels for airing war 'propaganda'
  250. https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/08/02/russian-disinformation-distorted-reality-in-ukraine-americans-should-take-note-putin-mueller-elections-antisemitism/ Russian Disinformation Distorted Reality in Ukraine. Americans Should Take Note: Putin's propaganda portrayed Ukraine as a fascist state filled with anti-Semites. Despite Ukrainians' election of a Jewish president, the image has stuck
  251. https://tass.com/world/756503/ CyberBerkut says it hacks into electronic counting system, Ukraine's CEC website
  252. News: Ukraine Says It Uncovered Plot to Create People's Republic in Odessa. October 28, 2014. The Moscow Times. November 21, 2014.
  253. Web site: RWB Opposes Creation of Information Ministry . Reporters without Borders . December 2, 2014 . December 17, 2014 . March 19, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160319123634/https://en.rsf.org/ukraine-rwb-opposes-creation-of-02-12-2014,47325.html . dead .
  254. Web site: Latest from OSCE Special Monitoring Mission (SMM) to Ukraine based on information received as of 18:00 (Kyiv time), 28 January 2015. osce.org. April 11, 2015.
  255. Web site: Malgin. Andrei. January 28, 2015. Russia Is Denying the Obvious in Ukraine. April 11, 2015. The Moscow Times.
  256. Web site: Tensions in Ukraine: Tense Moments as Fireball Erupts Into Night Sky. ABC News.
  257. News: Ukraine crisis: Leaders agree peace roadmap . BBC News . February 12, 2015 . February 12, 2015.
  258. Web site: Agence France-Presse: 'Stop shooting' EU pleads as fresh Ukraine ceasefire teeters. February 16, 2015.
  259. Web site: Ukraine soldiers taken prisoner in fighting for railway hub. February 18, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150218162445/http://bigstory.ap.org/article/34d8baf5ddf34ba7bbd983dc92a026cc/ukraine-army-rebels-miss-deadline-start-weapons-pullback. dead.
  260. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/04/08/russian-media-fabricated-story-about-a-child-getting-killed-by-ukrainian-shelling-the-bbc-says/ Russian media fabricated story about a child getting killed by Ukrainian shelling, the BBC says
  261. News: Girl killed in Ukraine 'never existed'. en-GB. BBC News. February 4, 2022.
  262. Web site: Журналісти ВВС дізналися, що сюжет про смерть 10-річної дівчинки в Донецьку був вигадкою. racurs.ua. BBC journalists learned that the story of the death of a 10-year-old girl in Donetsk was a fabrication . April 8, 2015. uk . March 8, 2022.
  263. https://www.cnn.com/2015/02/10/europe/ukraine-war-how-we-got-here/index.html Ukraine: Everything you need to know about how we got here
  264. Mariia Zhdanova, University of Glasgow and Dariya Orlova, European Journalism Observatory. Computational Propaganda in Ukraine: Caught Between External Threats and Internal Challenges . Working Paper. 2017.9. Project on Computational Propaganda
  265. News: Parfitt . Tom . January 3, 2009 . Ukraine accused of stealing Russian gas as fuel flow declines . en-GB . The Guardian . June 9, 2023 . 0261-3077.
  266. Web site: Meyers . Adam . December 22, 2016 . Danger Close: Fancy Bear Tracking of Ukrainian Field Artillery Units . June 9, 2023 . crowdstrike.com . en.
  267. News: Ukraine blocks popular social networks as part of sanctions on Russia. Luhn. Alec. May 16, 2017. The Guardian. May 17, 2017.
  268. Web site: December 10, 2018 . Russian info war preceded Ukrainian ship seizures: EU . June 9, 2023 . RFI . en.
  269. News: Boffey . Daniel . Russia 'paved way for Ukraine ship seizures with fake news drive' . December 13, 2018 . The Guardian . December 10, 2018 . December 13, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181213042741/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/10/russia-paved-way-for-ukraine-ship-seizures-with-fake-news-drive . live .
  270. News: Ukrainian Secret Services Search House Of Kremlin-Friendly Politician Medvedchuk . May 12, 2021 . Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty . May 11, 2021 . en.
  271. Web site: Медведчук прибув до Офісу генпрокурора (відео) . Medvedchuk arrived at the Prosecutor General's Office (video) . May 12, 2021 . www.unian.ua . uk.
  272. Web site: Данілов вважає, що Медведчука можна обміняти на політв'язнів Кремля . Danilov believes that Medvedchuk can be exchanged for Kremlin political prisoners . June 9, 2023 . . uk.
  273. https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/05/14/7293547/ Russian authorities have decided to liquidate the company through which Medvedchuk received suspicion
  274. Web site: Ukraine ex-leader Poroshenko faces 'treason' charges.
  275. News: Ukraine's Zelensky alleges Russia plotting coup against him for next week . en-US . Washington Post. November 28, 2021. 0190-8286.
  276. News: Wintour . Patrick . November 26, 2021 . Ukraine has uncovered Russian-linked coup plot, says president . en-GB . The Guardian . June 9, 2023 . 0261-3077.
  277. https://concorde.ua/rs/daily/item_78487/ Akhmetov calls “absolute lie” Zelensky coup allegations as SCM bonds fall
  278. https://mythoslabs.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Part-2-–-Analyzing-Twitter-Disinformation-and-Propaganda-Related-to-Russian-Aggression-Against-Ukraine.pdf Number of Twitter Accounts Spreading Pro-Russian Disinformation/Propaganda increased dramatically in December and Early January compared to November 2021
  279. https://www.rferl.org/amp/ukraine-poroshenko-treason-return-worried/31654340.html Former President Poroshenko Not Worried He'll Be Arrested Upon Return To Ukraine
  280. Kremlin plan to install pro-Russian leadership in Ukraine exposed: Foreign Secretary Liz Truss gave a statement on the Kremlin plan to install pro-Russian leadership in Ukraine
  281. https://www.newyorker.com/news/daily-comment/putins-preparation-for-ukraine Putin's Preparations for Ukraine: The autocrat has been trying for decades to end what he sees as a prolonged period of Russian humiliation
  282. News: Ukraine: Zelenskiy bans three opposition TV stations . DW.com . February 3, 2021 .
  283. News: Alternatively Pro-Russian: How NASH Operates . April 26, 2021 . Ukraine World .
  284. News: Zaks . Dmitry . Information War Rages Ahead of Feared Russian Invasion . February 21, 2022 . . . February 23, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220221151631/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/02/21/information-war-rages-ahead-of-feared-russian-invasion-a76491 . February 21, 2022 . live .
  285. News: Bowman . Verity . Four Russian false flags that are comically easy to debunk . February 21, 2022 . . February 23, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220221141409/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/02/21/five-russian-false-flags-comically-easy-debunk . February 21, 2022 . live .
  286. https://www.newyorker.com/news/annals-of-espionage/inside-the-high-stakes-fight-to-control-the-narrative-on-ukraine Inside the High-Stakes Fight to Control the Narrative on Ukraine: As Putin searches for a pretext to invade Ukraine, the Biden Administration has moved to release, in real time, what it knows of Russia's war plans
  287. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-60561089 Ukraine crisis: Google Maps live traffic data turned off in country
  288. https://m.dw.com/en/the-azov-battalion-extremists-defending-mariupol/a-61151151 The Azov Battalion: Extremists defending Mariupol
  289. https://www.politico.eu/article/russia-vacuum-bomb-ukraine-invasion/ Russia used powerful vacuum bomb on Ukraine, envoy says: Thermobaric weapon works by taking in oxygen to create powerful, high-temperature explosions
  290. https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/russia-restricts-access-bbc-russian-service-radio-liberty-ria-2022-03-04/ Russia blocks access to BBC and Voice of America websites
  291. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/4/russia-restricts-access-to-several-western-media-websites Russia restricts access to several Western media websites: Russian communications watchdog restricts access to sites including BBC, Deutsche Welle and Radio Free Europe following request by prosecutors
  292. https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2022/03/europe/mariupol-maternity-hospital-attack/index.html Anatomy of the Mariupol hospital attack
  293. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60675599 Ukraine war: Three dead as maternity hospital hit by Russian air strike
  294. https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-war-maternity-hospital-pregnant-woman-dead-c0f2f859296f9f02be24fc9edfca1085 Pregnant woman, baby die after Russian bombing in Mariupol
  295. https://inews.co.uk/news/mariupol-bombing-pregnant-woman-russian-embassy-injuries-ukraine-hospital-attack-birth-1512393 Mariupol bombing victim gives birth after Russian embassy falsely claimed she was an actress and faked her injuries: Mariana Vishegirskaya gave birth to a baby girl after being injured during a Russian airstrike on the maternity and children’s wards of a hospital in Mariupol on Wednesday
  296. News: Twitter removes Russian embassy tweet on Mariupol bombing . Dan Milmo, Hibaq Farah. Guardian. March 10, 2022. March 11, 2022.
  297. https://www.businessinsider.com/video-ukraine-workers-defuse-500kg-bomb-in-chernihiv-after-attack-2022-3 Video shows 2 workers defusing unexploded bomb in Ukrainian city under Russian attack, using bottled water and very steady hands
  298. https://www.wsj.com/articles/inside-one-of-russias-deadliest-assaults-on-a-ukraine-city-they-want-to-terrorize-11647204498 Inside One of Russia’s Deadliest Assaults on a Ukraine City. ‘They Want to Terrorize.’: In the ancient city of Chernihiv, bodies were pulled from the rubble for days after a bombing shortly after the start of Russia’s invasion
  299. Web site: February 15, 2017 . Three FAB-500 aerial bombs found in Chernihiv . March 5, 2022 . news 24 . March 5, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220305184743/https://news24online.com/news/world/russia-ukraine-war-three-fab-500-aerial-bombs-found-chernihiv-219eab39/ . dead .
  300. News: Russia-Ukraine war: Marina Ovsyannikova interrupts Russian show . . March 15, 2022 . March 29, 2022.
  301. https://tass.com/world/1423275 Azov battalion militants blow up Mariupol theater building — Defense Ministry
  302. https://globalnews.ca/news/8688367/ukraine-russia-bread-line-deaths-chernihiv/ Ukraine says 10 civilians shot dead by Russian forces while waiting in bread line
  303. https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3431719-five-bodies-including-three-of-children-retrieved-from-rubble-after-chernihiv-dorm-bombed-by-russians.html Five bodies, including three of children, retrieved from rubble after Chernihiv dorm bombed by Russians
  304. https://tass.ru/armiya-i-opk/14095801 РФ обратится в международные организации из-за геноцида мирного населения со стороны Киева
  305. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ukraine-russia-war-putin-zelensky-peace-latest-b2038633.html Ukraine news - live: Doubts over Russian assault on Kyiv as ambassador denies Moscow bombed Mariupol theatre
  306. https://www.nationalguard.mil/Resources/Press-Releases/Article/2970567/national-guard-refutes-russian-state-media-reports-that-falsely-claim-tennessee/ National Guard refutes Russian state media reports that falsely claim Tennessee National Guard members killed in Ukraine
  307. Web site: Terajima . Asami . March 21, 2022 . At least 8 killed by Russian missile attack on Kyiv shopping mall (PHOTOS) . March 22, 2022 . The Kyiv Independent . en-US.
  308. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/war-against-ukraine/debunking-the-kremlin-myth-about-the-korsun-pogrom-video-383832.html Debunking the Kremlin myth about the 'Korsun pogrom' (VIDEO)
  309. Web site: Фейк по-лугански: "Стингеры" из Battlefield 3. Fake in Luhansk: "Stingers" from Battlefield 3. July 23, 2015 . February 4, 2022. Настоящее Время. ru.
  310. From InfoResist: "incorrectly translated stencils on vehicles ("re-usable" instead of "re usable", "date loaded" instead of "date louded"), a wooden box (when the Stinger is always supplied in a branded metal one)"
  311. Web site: July 22, 2015. Склад с оружием из США нашли при разборе завалов в аэропорту Луганска. February 4, 2022. РИА Новости. ru.
  312. https://www.bellingcat.com/news/uk-and-europe/2016/04/03/azov-video/ Behind the Dutch Terror Threat Video: The St. Petersburg "Troll Factory" Connection
  313. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26846125 Feed the Bears, Starve the Trolls: Demystifying Russia's Cybered Information Confrontation Strategy
  314. Web site: Inside a pro-Russia propaganda machine in Ukraine. Andrey Soshnikov . BBC Russian. November 13, 2017.
    • Web site: November 18, 2016. Kiber Berkut. February 4, 2022. archive.is. November 18, 2016. https://archive.today/20161118125713/https://vk.com/kyber.berkut?w=wall251480481_126. live.
  315. News: Мистецтво фейку: арт-центр в Донецьку перетворили на "базу ІДІЛ". uk. BBC News Україна . March 8, 2022.
  316. Web site: @DFRLab. September 19, 2018.
    1. MinskMonitor: Supposed Security Service Video Actually Separatists
    . February 4, 2022. DFRLab. en.
  317. Web site: У "ДНР" помітили БТР із пропагандистського ролику "Роззброєння бази "Правого сектору". In the "DPR" noticed the armored personnel carrier from the propaganda video "Disarmament of the base of the" Right Sector ". September 11, 2018 . February 4, 2022. espreso.tv. uk.
  318. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-41915295 Inside a pro-Russia propaganda machine in Ukraine
  319. Web site: Жёсткое задержание на украинском блокпосту или очередной постановочный кинофильм "ДНР". Severe detention at a Ukrainian checkpoint or another staged "DNR" film . August 17, 2018 . February 4, 2022. Мілітарний. uk.
  320. Web site: Silverman . Craig . Kao . Jeff . In the Ukraine Conflict, Fake Fact-Checks Are Being Used to Spread Disinformation . March 8, 2022 . . March 8, 2022.
  321. Web site: Gómez . Emiliano Tahui . Fact check: Footage of helicopter attacking convoy is from video game, not invasion of Ukraine . March 22, 2022 . USA TODAY . en-US.
  322. Web site: Deepfake video of Zelenskyy could be 'tip of the iceberg' in info war, experts warn . . March 16, 2022 . March 17, 2022 . Allyn, Bobby.
  323. https://www.msnbc.com/the-reidout/reidout-blog/zelenskyy-deepfake-rcna20430 This deepfake of Zelenskyy went viral. Let it be a warning to us all: Officials spotted a fake video purporting to show Ukraine's president surrendering. We may not be so lucky next time
  324. News: Європарламент прийняв резолюцію про протидію російській пропаганді. The European Parliament has adopted a resolution against Russian propaganda . October 23, 2016 . Зеркало недели Дзеркало тижня Mirror Weekly. March 3, 2022.
  325. News: Путін прокоментував ухвалення Європарламентом резолюції з протидії російській пропаганді. Putin commented on the adoption by the European Parliament of a resolution to counter Russian propaganda . November 23, 2016. ТСН.ua. March 3, 2022.
  326. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2022/mar/11/youtube-blocks-russian-state-funded-media YouTube blocks Russian state-funded media channels globally: The Google-owned platform said the invasion of Ukraine fell under its violent events policy and violating material would be removed
  327. https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/1/22957443/roku-directv-russia-ukraine-rt Roku, DirecTV drop Russian-backed RT channel: US providers are dropping the channel from their lineups
  328. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/russia-is-having-less-success-at-spreading-social-media-disinformation Russia's Information War Is Being Waged on Social Media Platforms: But tech companies and governments are fighting back
  329. News: Navalny Calls for Sanctions Against Russian State Media 'Warmongers' . The Moscow Times . March 6, 2022.
  330. https://theconversation.com/why-zelenskyys-selfie-videos-are-helping-ukraine-win-the-pr-war-against-russia-178117 Why Zelenskyy's 'selfie videos' are helping Ukraine win the PR war against Russia
  331. https://www.newstatesman.com/comment/2022/03/zelensky-is-a-hero-but-bravery-alone-wont-defeat-the-russians Zelensky is a hero – but bravery alone won't defeat the Russians: We can't assume a happy ending for Ukraine. It needs our support
  332. https://thehill.com/homenews/senate/598428-five-takeaways-from-zelenskys-virtual-address-to-congress Five takeaways from Zelensky's virtual address to Congress
  333. https://thehill.com/blogs/in-the-know/in-the-know/598424-pundit-ripped-for-criticizing-zelenskys-attire-for-address Pundit ripped for criticizing Zelensky's attire for address
  334. https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/zelenskyy-address-standing-ovation-canada Zelenskyy gets standing ovation for minutes after powerful address to Canada
  335. https://nationalpost.com/news/world/do-more-to-help-ukraines-defiant-zelenskiy-urges-britain ‘We will fight to the end': Standing ovation for defiant Zelenskyy from British parliament: Conjures up Winston Churchill in video plea for more sanctions against 'terrorist state' Russia
  336. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/zelenskyy-gets-standing-ovation-speech-european-parliament-rcna18179 Zelenskyy gets standing ovation after speech to European Parliament: 'Nobody is going to break us': The speech came hours after the Ukrainian president submitted an application to the European Union to grant Ukraine immediate membership into the bloc
  337. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/02/23/zelenskys-desperate-plea-for-peace/ Zelensky's Last-Ditch Plea for Peace: The Ukrainian president made a final appeal to the Russian public just hours before the invasion began
  338. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-15047823 Vladimir Putin: Russia's action man president
  339. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/02/28/putin-bizarre-isolation/ The bizarre, literal isolation of Vladimir Putin
  340. https://factcheck.afp.com/doc.afp.com.324B7CA Photo of Ukrainian President Zelensky in military gear was taken in 2021 — before Russian invasion, AFP Singapore, March 3, 2022
  341. https://www.bbc.com/news/60554910 Ukraine invasion: Misleading claims continue to go viral
  342. https://www.forbes.com/sites/dereksaul/2022/02/15/putins-long-tables-explained-why-he-puts-some-leaders-including-germanys-scholz-at-an-extreme-distance/ Putin's Long Tables Explained: Why He Puts Some Leaders, Including Germany's Scholz, At An Extreme Distance
  343. News: Sam . Schechner . Stacy . Meichtry . February 27, 2022 . How Zelensky and Putin Are Using Online Media in the War for Ukraine . . March 22, 2022.
  344. News: Vermes . James . March 20, 2022 . Zelensky's speeches use shame effectively in plea for support against Russia, expert says . March 22, 2022 . Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.
  345. News: Stelter . Brian . March 17, 2022 . Zelensky meets Americans where they are with video calls and mass media . March 22, 2022 . CNN.
  346. News: Heaphy . Edmund . Has the Ukrainian counteroffensive already begun? . RTE News . May 20, 2023.
  347. March 2, 2022 . Kroll . Andy . China's Propaganda Machine Gears Up for Putin — and Blames America for the Invasion . Rolling Stone.
  348. https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2022/4/6/china-media-coverage-ukraine-war Russia-Ukraine war: In Chinese media, the US is the villain: In tightly-controlled media space, conflict is an opportunity for Beijing to advance its ‘information proxy war’.
  349. News: Wong . Edward . U.S. Fights Bioweapons Disinformation Pushed by Russia and China . . March 11, 2022 . March 12, 2022.
  350. News: March 5, 2022 . How China embraces Russian propaganda and its version of the war . .
  351. News: Michael . Wilner . Antonio . Maria Delgado . Nora . Gámez Torres . March 14, 2022 . March 21, 2022 . Explainer: How Russia's war in Ukraine is shuffling U.S. alliances in Latin America . .
  352. News: March 14, 2022 . Putin supporters demonstrate in Belgrade backing Ukrainian invasion . .
  353. News: Jason M. . Brodsky . David . Daoud . March 10, 2022 . March 21, 2022 . Why Iran and Hezbollah Are Quietly Applauding Putin's War on Ukraine . .
  354. Web site: Ziabari . Kourosh . March 9, 2022 . In Backing Russia on Ukraine, Iran Is on the Wrong Side of History . Foreign Policy.
  355. Web site: March 5, 2022 . In Iran, Sputnik Persian, the British Embassy and Ahmadinejad Clash Over Ukraine . . March 17, 2022 . Ehsan . Mehrabi .
  356. Web site: Carmen . Sesin . March 8, 2022 . March 21, 2022 . Russian propaganda targeting Spanish-language users proliferates on social media . NBC News.
  357. News: Eligon . John . In Some Parts of the World, the War in Ukraine Seems Justified . March 19, 2022 . . March 17, 2022.
  358. News: Dikole . S. A. . March 11–17, 2022 . Situation in Ukraine is about denazification of the country by Russia . 56 . . . March 20, 2022.
  359. https://www.narcity.com/a-fearless-woman-used-sunflower-seeds-to-tell-off-russians-in-ukraine-the-video-is-intense A Fearless Woman Used Sunflower Seeds To Tell Off Russians In Ukraine & The Video Is Intense: "What the f--- are you doing on our land with all these guns?"
  360. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ukraine-russia-soldier-woman-confrontation-b2022993.html Brave Ukrainian women's tells Russian soldier: 'Put sunflower seeds in your pocket so they grow when you die.'
  361. https://www.dw.com/en/fact-check-ukraines-ghost-of-kyiv-fighter-pilot/a-60951825 Fact check: Ukraine's 'Ghost of Kyiv' fighter pilot
  362. https://www.flyingmag.com/the-ghost-of-kyiv-a-legend-born-of-social-media-but-is-he-real/ The Ghost of Kyiv: A Legend Born of Social Media, But Is He Real?: Some say the stories of this fighter pilot are true, while others believe it's little more than a story to keep hopes up during bleak times
  363. https://www.timesofisrael.com/ukraine-has-upper-hand-in-infowar-battle-but-russia-eyes-a-long-game/ Ukraine has upper hand in information war, but Russia eyes a long game: Kyiv’s messaging and communications resonate in the West, experts say, while Russia focuses inward and on India, China, Africa
  364. https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/news/2022/3/10/ukrainian-wartime-humour-derides-and-ridicules-russia As bombs fall on Ukraine, memes ridicule Russian aggression: People hiding from violence in subterranean shelters exchange jokes on their phones as a release from the darkness.
  365. https://abcnews.go.com/amp/International/memes-weapons-ukraine-russia-conflict/story?id=83184578 Memes become weapons in Ukraine-Russia conflict: History experts say social media posts are latest in long line of propaganda.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Russian information war against Ukraine".

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